(4) The seeds of God, 'tis true, are few, but vast and fair, and good - virtue and self-control, devotion. Devotion is God-gnosis; and he who knoweth God, being filled with all good things, thinks godly thoughts and not thoughts like the many [think]. For this cause they who Gnostic are, please not the many, nor the many them. They are thought mad and laughted at; they're hated and despised, and sometimes even put to death. For we did say that bad must needs dwell on earth, where 'tis in its own place. Its place is earth, and not Cosmos, as some will sometimes say with impious tongue. But he who is a devotee of God, will bear with all - once he has sensed the Gnosis. For such an one all things, e'en though they be for others bad, are for him good; deliberately he doth refer them all unto the Gnosis. And, thing most marvelous, 'tis he alone who maketh bad things good.

(621) Now after they had gone to rest, about the middle of the night there was a thunderstorm and earthquake, and then in an instant they were driven upwards in all manner of ways to their birth, like stars shooting. He himself was hindered from drinking the water. But in what manner or by what means he returned to the body he could not say; only, in the morning, awaking suddenly, he found himself lying on the pyre. And thus, Glaucon, the tale has been saved and has not perished, and will save us if we are obedient to the word spoken; and we shall pass safely over the river of Forgetfulness and our soul will not be defiled. Wherefore my counsel is, that we hold fast ever to the heavenly way and follow after justice and virtue always, considering that the soul is immortal and able to endure every sort of good and every sort of evil. Thus shall we live dear to one another and to the gods, both while remaining here and when, like conquerors in the games who go round to gather gifts, we receive our reward. And it shall be well with us both in this life and in the pilgrimage of a thousand years which we have been describing. INDEX. A. A BDERA , Protagoras of, 10. 600 C . Abortion, allowed in certain cases, 5. 461 C . Absolute beauty, 5. 476 , 479 ; 6. 494 A , 501 B , 507 B ; —absolute good, 6. 507 B ; 7. 540 A ; —absolute justice, 5. 479 ; 6. 501 B ; 7. 517 E ; —absolute swiftness and slowness, 7. 529 D ; —absolute temperance, 6. 501 B ; —absolute unity, 7. 524 E , 525 E ; —the absolute and the many, 6. 507 . Abstract ideas, origin of, 7. 523 . Cp. Idea . Achaeans, 3. 389 E , 390 E , 393 A , D , 394 A . Achilles, the son of Peleus, third in descent from Zeus, 3. 391 C ; his grief, ib. 388 A ; his avarice, cruelty, and insolence, ib. 390 E , 391 A , B ; his master Phoenix, ib. 390 E . Active life, age for, 7. 539 , 540 . Actors, cannot perform both tragic and comic parts, 3. 395 A . Adeimantus, son of Ariston, a person in the dialogue, 1. 327 C ; his genius, 2. 368 A ; distinguished at the battle of Megara, ibid. ; takes up the discourse, ib. 362 D , 368 E , 376 D ; 4. 419 A ; 6. 487 A ; 8. 548 E ; urges Socrates to speak in detail about the community of women and children, 5. 449 . Adrasteia, prayed to, 5. 451 A . Adultery, 5. 461 A . Aeschylus, quoted:— S. c. T. 451, 8. 550 C ; ″ 592, 2. 361 B , E ; ″ 593 ib. 362 A ; Niobe, fr. 146, 3. 391 E ; ″ fr. 151, 2. 380 A ; Xanthians, fr. 159, ib. 381 D ; Fab. incert. 266, ib. 383 B ; ″ ″ 326, 8. 563 C . Aesculapius, see Asclepius . Affinity, degrees of, 5. 461 . Agamemnon, his dream, 2. 383 A ; his gifts to Achilles, 3. 390 E ; his anger against Chryses, ib. 392 E foll.; shown by Palamedes in the play to be a ridiculous general, 7. 522 D ; his soul becomes an eagle, 10. 620 B . Age, for active life, 7. 539 , 540 ; —for marriage, 5. 460 ; —for philosophy, 7. 539 . Agent and patient have the same qualities, 4. 437 . Aglaion , father of Leontius, 4. 439 E . Agriculture, tools required for, 2. 370 C . Ajax, the son of Telamon, 10. 620 B ; the reward of his bravery, 5. 468 D ; his soul turns into a lion, 10. 620 B . Alcinous, ‘tales of,’ 10. 614 B . Allegory, cannot be understood by the young, 2. 378 E . Ambition, disgraceful, 1. 347 B ( cp. 7. 520 D ); characteristic of the timocratic state and man, 8. 545 , 548 , 550 B , 553 E ; easily passes into avarice, ib. 553 E ; assigned to the passionate element of the soul, 9. 581 A ; —ambitious men, 5. 475 A ; 6. 485 B . Ameles, the river ( = Lethe), 10. 621 A , C . Amusement, a means of education, 4. 425 A ; 7. 537 A . Anacharsis, the Scythian, his inventions, 10. 600 A . Analogy of the arts applied to rulers, 1. 341 ; of the arts and justice, ib. 349 ; of men and animals, 2. 375 ; 5. 459 . Anapaestic rhythms, 3. 400 B . Anarchy, begins in music, 4. 424 E [ cp. Laws 3. 701 B]; in democracies, 8. 562 D . Anger, stirred by injustice, 4. 440 . Animals, liberty enjoyed by, in a democracy, 8. 562 E , 563 C ; choose their destiny in the next world, 10. 620 D [ cp. Phaedr. 249 B]. Anticipations of pleasure and pain, 9. 584 D . Aphroditè, bound by Hephaestus, 3. 390 C . Apollo, song of, at the nuptials of Thetis, 2. 383 A ; Apollo and Achilles, 3. 391 A ; Chryses’ prayer to, ib. 394 A ; lord of the lyre, ib. 399 E ; father of Asclepius, ib. 408 C ; the God of Delphi, 4. 427 A. Appearance, power of, 2. 365 B , 366 C . Appetite, good and bad, 5. 475 C . Appetites, the, 8. 559 ; 9. 571 ( cp. 4. 439 ). Appetitive element of the soul, 4. 439 [ cp. Tim. 70 E]; must be subordinate to reason and passion, 4. 442 A ; 9. 571 D ; may be described as the love of gain, 9. 581 A . Arcadia, temple of Lycaean Zeus in, 8. 565 D . Archilochus, quoted, 2. 365 C . Architecture, 4. 438 C ; necessity of pure taste in, 3. 401 . Ardiaeus, tyrant of Pamphylia, his eternal punishment, 10. 615 C , E . Ares and Aphroditè, 3. 390 C . Argos, Agamemnon, king of, 3. 393 E . Argument, the longer and the shorter method of, 4. 435 ; 6. 504 ; misleading nature of (Adeimantus), 6. 487 ; youthful love of, 7. 539 [ cp. Phil. 15 E]. For the personification of the argument, see Personification . Arion, 5. 453 E . Aristocracy (i.e. the ideal state or government of the best), 4. 445 C ( cp. 8. 544 E , 545 D , and see State ); mode of its decline, 8. 546 ; —the aristocratical man, 7. 541 B ; 8. 544 E ( see Guardians , Philosopher , Ruler ): —(in the ordinary sense of the word), 1. 338 D . Cp. Constitution . Ariston, father of Glaucon, 1. 327 A ( cp. 2. 368 A ). Aristonymus, father of Cleitophon, 1. 328 B . Arithmetic , must be learnt by the rulers, 7. 522 –526; use of, in forming ideas, ib. 524 foll. ( cp. 10. 602 ); spirit in which it should be pursued, 7. 525 D ; common notions about, mistaken, ib. E ; an excellent instrument of education, ib. 526 [ cp. Laws 5. 747]; employed in order to express the interval between the king and the tyrant, 9. 587 . Cp. Mathematics . Armenius, father of Er, the Pamphylian, 10. 614 B . Arms, throwing away of, disgraceful, 5. 468 A ; arms of Hellenes not to be offered as trophies in the temples, ib. 470 A . Army needed in a state, 2. 374 . Art , influence of, on character, 3. 400 foll.; —art of building, ib. 401 A ; 4. 438 C ; carpentry, 4. 428 C ; calculation, 7. 524 , 526 B ; 10. 602 ; cookery, 1. 332 C ; dyeing, 4. 429 D ; embroidery, 3. 401 A ; exchange, 2. 369 C ; measurement, 10. 602 ; money-making, 1. 330 ; 8. 556 ; payment, 1. 346 ; tactics, 7. 522 E , 525 B ; weaving, 3. 401 A ; 5. 455 D ; weighing, 10. 602 D ; —the arts exercised for the good of their subject, 1. 342 , 345 –347 [ cp. Euthyph. 13]; interested in their own perfection, 1. 342 ; differ according to their functions, ib. 346 ; full of grace, 3. 401 A ; must be subject to a censorship, ib. B; causes of the deterioration of, 4. 421 ; employment of children in, 5. 467 A; ideals in, ib. 472 D ; chiefly useful for practical purposes, 7. 533 A ; —the arts and philosophy, 6. 495 E , 496 C (cp. supra 5. 475 D , 476 A ); —the handicraft arts a reproach, 9. 590 C ; —the lesser arts ( τεχνύδρια ), 5. 475 D ; ( τέχνια ), 6. 495 D ; —three arts concerned with all things, 10. 601 . Art. [ Art, according to the conception of Plato, is not a collection of canons of criticism, but a subtle influence which pervades all things animate as well as inanimate (3. 400 , 401 ). He knows nothing of ‘schools’ or of the history of art, nor does he select any building or statue for condemnation or admiration. [ Cp. Protag. 311 C, where Pheidias is casually mentioned as the typical sculptor, and Meno 91 D, where Socrates says that Pheidias, ‘although he wrought such exceedingly noble works,’ did not make nearly so much money by them as Protagoras did by his wisdom. ] Plato judges art by one test, ‘simplicity,’ but under this he includes moderation, purity, and harmony of proportion; and he would extend to sculpture and architecture the same rigid censorship which he has already applied to poetry and music (3. 401 A ). He dislikes the ‘illusions’ of painting (10. 602 ) and the ‘false proportions’ given by sculptors to their subjects (Soph. 234 E), both of which he classes as a species of magic. With more justice he points out the danger of an excessive devotion to art; (cp. the ludicrous pictures of the unmanly musician (3. 411 ), and of the dilettanti who run about to every chorus (5. 475 )). But he hopes to save his guardians from effeminacy by the severe discipline and training of their early years. Sparta and Athens are to be combined [ cp. Introduction, p. clxx ]: the citizens will live, as Adeimantus complains, ‘like a garrison of mercenaries’ (4. 419 ); but they will be surrounded by an atmosphere of grace and beauty, which will insensibly instil noble and true ideas into their minds. ] Artisans, necessary in the state, 2. 370 ; have no time to be ill, 3. 406 D . Artist, the Great, 10. 596 [ cp. Laws 10. 902 E]; —the true artist does not work for his own benefit, 1. 346 , 347 ; —artists must imitate the good only, 3. 401 C . Asclepiadae, 3. 405 D , 408 B ; 10. 599 C . Asclepius , son of Apollo, 3. 408 C ; not ignorant of the lingering treatment, ib. 406 D ; a statesman, ib. 407 E ; said by the poets to have been bribed to restore a rich man to life, ib. 408 B ; left disciples, 10. 599 C ; —descendants of, 3. 406 A ; —his sons at Troy, ibid. Assaults, trials for, will be unknown in the best state, 5. 464 E . Astronomy, must be studied by the rulers, 7. 527 –530; spirit in which it should be pursued, ib. 529 , 530 . Atalanta, chose the life of an athlete, 10. 620 B . Athené, not to be considered author of the strife between Trojans and Achaeans , 2. 379 E . Athenian confectionery, 3. 404 E . Athens, corpses exposed outside the northern wall of, 4. 439 E . Athlete, Atalanta chooses the soul of an, 10. 620 B ; athletes, obliged to pay excessive attention to diet, 3. 404 A ; sleep away their lives, ibid. ; are apt to become brutalized, ib. 410 , 411 (cp. 7. 535 D ); —the guardians athletes of war, 3. 403 E , 404 B ; 4. 422 ; 7. 521 E ; 8. 543 [ cp. Laws 8. 830]. Atridae, 3. 393 A . Atropos (one of the Fates), her song, 10. 617 C ; spins the threads of destiny, and makes them irreversible, ib. 620 E . Attic confections, 3. 404 E . Audience, see Spectator . Autolycus, praised by Homer, 1. 334 A . Auxiliaries , the young warriors of the state, 3. 414 ; compared to dogs, 2. 376 ; 4. 440 D ; 5. 451 D ; have silver mingled in their veins, 3. 415 A . Cp. Guardians . Avarice, disgraceful, 1. 347 B ; forbidden in the guardians, 3. 390 E ; falsely imputed to Achilles and Asclepius by the poets, ib. 391 B , 408 C ; characteristic of timocracy and oligarchy, 8. 548 A , 553 . B. Barbarians, regard nakedness as improper, 5. 452 ; the natural enemies of the Hellenes, ib. 469 D , 470 C [ cp. Pol. 262 D]; peculiar forms of government among, 8. 544 D . Beast, the great, 6. 493 ; the many-headed, 9. 588 , 589 ; ‘the wild beast within us,’ ib. 571 , 572 . Beautiful, the, and the good are one, 5. 452 ; —the many beautiful contrasted with absolute beauty, 6. 507 B . Beauty as a means of education, 3. 401 foll.; absolute beauty, 5. 476 , 479 ; 6. 494 A , 501 B , 507 B [ cp. Laws 2. 655 C]. Becoming, the passage from, to being, 7. 518 D , 521 D , 525 D . Beds, the figure of the three, 10. 596 . Bee-masters, 8. 564 C . Being and not being, 5. 477 ; true being the object of the philosopher’s desire, 6. 484 , 485 , 486 E , 490 , 500 C ; 7. 521 , 537 D ; 9. 581 , 582 C (cp. 5. 475 E ; 7. 520 B , 525 ; and Phaedo 82; Phaedr. 249; Theaet. 173 E; Soph. 249 D, 254); concerned with the invariable, 9. 585 C . Belief, see Faith . Bendidea, a feast of Artemis, 1. 354 A (cp. 327 A , B ). Bendis, a title of Artemis, 1. 327 A . Bias of Priene, 1. 335 E . Birds, breeding of, at Athens, 5. 459 . Blest, Islands of the, 7. 519 C , 540 B . Body, the, not self-sufficing, 1. 341 E ; excessive care of, inimical to virtue, 3. 407 (cp. 9. 591 D ); has less truth and essence than the soul, 9. 585 D ; —harmony of body and soul, 3. 402 D . Body, the, and the members, comparison of the state to, 5. 462 D , 464 B . Boxing, 4. 422 . Brass (and iron) mingled by the God in the husbandmen and craftsmen, 3. 415 A (cp. 8. 547 A ). Breeding of animals, 5. 459 . Building, art of, 3. 401 A ; 4. 438 C . Burial of the guardians, 3. 414 A ; 5. 465 E , 469 A ; 7. 540 B [ cp. Laws 12. 947]. C. Calculation, art of, corrects the illusions of sight, 10. 602 (cp. 7. 524 ); the talent for, accompanied by general quickness, 7. 526 B . Cp. Arithmetic . Captain, parable of the deaf, 6. 488 . Carpentry, 4. 428 C . Causes, final, argument from, applied to justice, 1. 352 : 6. 491 E , 495 B ; —of crimes, 8. 552 D ; 9. 575 A . Cave, the image of the, 7. 514 foll., 532 (cp. 539 E ). Censorship of fiction, 2. 377 ; 3. 386 –391, 401 A , 408 C ; 10. 595 foll. [ cp. Laws 7. 801, 811]; of the arts, 3. 401 . Ceos, Prodicus of, 10. 600 C . Cephalus, father of Polemarchus, 1. 327 B ; offers sacrifice, ib. 328 B , 331 D ; his views on old age, ib. 328 E ; his views on wealth, ib. 330 A foll. Cephalus [of Clazomenae], 1. 330 B . Cerberus, two natures in one, 9. 588 C . Chance in war, 5. 467 E ; blamed by men for their misfortunes, 10. 619 C . Change in music, not to be allowed, 4. 424 [ cp. Laws 7. 799]. Character, differences of, in men, 1. 329 D [ cp. Pol. 307]; in women, 5. 456 ; —affected by the imitation of unworthy objects, 3. 395 ; —national character, 4. 435 [ cp. Laws 5. 747]: —great characters may be ruined by bad education, 6. 491 E , 495 B ; 7. 519 : —faults of character, 6. 503 [ cp. Theaet. 144 B]. Charmantides, the Paeanian, present at the dialogue, 1. 328 B . Charondas, lawgiver of Italy and Sicily, 10. 599 E . Cheese, 2. 372 C ; 3. 405 E . Cheiron, teacher of Achilles, 3. 391 C . Children have spirit, but not reason, 4. 441 A ; why under authority, 9. 590 E ; —in the state, 3. 415 ; 5. 450 E , 457 foll.; 8. 543 ; must not hear improper stories, 2. 377 ; 3. 391 C ; must be reared amid fair sights and sounds, 3. 401 ; must receive education even in their plays, 4. 425 A ; 7. 537 A [ cp. Laws 1. 643 B]; must learn to ride, 5. 467 [ cp. Laws 7. 804 C]; must go with their fathers and mothers into war, 5. 467 ; 7. 537 A : —transfer of children from one class to another, 3. 415 ; 4. 423 D : —exposure of children allowed, 5. 460 C , 461 C : —illegitimate children, ib. 461 A . Chimaera, two natures in one, 9. 588 C . Chines, presented to the brave warrior, 5. 468 D . Chryses, the priest of Apollo (Iliad i. 11 foll.), 3. 392 E foll. Cithara, see Harp . Citizens, the, of the best state, compared to a garrison of mercenaries (Adeimantus), 4. 419 (cp. 8. 543 ); will form one family, 5. 462 foll. See Guardians . City , situation of the, 3. 415 : —the ‘city of pigs,’ 2. 372 : —the heavenly city, 9. 592 : —Cities, most, divided between rich and poor, 4. 422 E ; 8. 551 E [ cp. Laws 12. 945 E]: —the game of cities, 4. 422 E . Cp. Constitution , State . Classes, in the state, should be kept distinct, 2. 374 ; 3. 397 E , 415 A ; 4. 421 , 433 A , 434 , 441 E , 443 ; 5. 453 (cp. 8. 552 A , and Laws 8. 846 E). Cleitophon, the son of Aristonymus, present at the dialogue, 1. 328 B ; interposes on behalf of Thrasymachus, ib. 340 A . Cleverness, no match for honesty, 3. 409 C (cp. 10. 613 C ); not often united with a steady character, 6. 503 [ cp. Theaet. 144 B]; needs an ideal direction, 7. 519 [ cp. Laws 7. 819 A]. Clotho, second of the fates, 10. 617 C , 620 E ; sings of the present, ib. 617 C ; the souls brought to her, ib. 620 E . Colours, comparison of, 9. 585 A ; contrast of, ib. 586 C ; —indelible colours, 4. 429 : —‘colours’ of poetry, 10. 601 A . Comedy, cannot be allowed in the state, 3. 394 [ cp. Laws 7. 816 D]; accustoms the mind to vulgarity, 10. 606 ; —same actors cannot act both tragedy and comedy, 3. 395 . Common life in the state, 5. 458 , 464 foll.; —common meals of the guardians, 3. 416 ; common meals for women, 5. 458 D [ cp. Laws 6. 781; 7. 806 E; 8. 839 D]; —common property among the guardians, 3. 416 E ; 4. 420 A , 422 D ; 5. 464 ; 8. 543 . Community of women and children , 3. 416 ; 5. 450 E , 457 foll., 462 , 464 ; 8. 543 A [ cp. Laws 5. 739 C]; —of property, 3. 416 E ; 4. 420 A , 422 D ; 5. 464 ; 8. 543 ; —of feeling, 5. 464 . Community. [ The communism of the Republic seems to have been suggested by Plato’s desire for the unity of the state (cp. 5. 462 foll.). If those ‘two small pestilent words, “meum” and “tuum,” which have engendered so much strife among men and created so much mischief in the world,’ could be banished from the lips and thoughts of mankind, the ideal state would soon be realized. The citizens would have parents, wives, children, and property in common; they would rejoice in each other’s prosperity, and sorrow at each other’s misfortune; they would call their rulers not ‘lords’ and ‘masters,’ but ‘friends’ and ‘saviours.’ Plato is aware that such a conception could hardly be carried out in this world; and he evades or adjourns, rather than solves, the difficulty by the famous assertion that only when the philosopher rules in the city will the ills of human life find an end [ cp. Introduction, p. clxxiii ]. In the Critias, where the ideal state, as Plato himself hints to us (110 D), is to some extent reproduced in an imaginary description of ancient Attica, property is common, but there is no mention of a community of wives and children. Finally in the Laws (5. 739), Plato while still maintaining the blessings of communism, recognizes the impossibility of its realization, and sets about the construction of a ‘second-best state’ in which the rights of property are conceded; although, according to Aristotle (Pol. ii. 6, § 4), he gradually reverts to the ideal polity in all except a few unimportant particulars. ] Conception, the, of truth by the philosopher, 6. 490 A . Confidence and courage, 4. 430 B . Confiscation of the property of the rich in democracies, 8. 565 . Constitution , the aristocratic, is the ideal state sketched in bk. iv (cp. 8. 544 E , 545 D ); —defective forms of constitution, 4. 445 B ; 8. 544 [ cp. Pol. 291 E foll.]; aristocracy (in the ordinary sense), 1. 338 D ; timocracy or ‘Spartan polity,’ 8. 545 foll.; oligarchy, ib. 550 foll., 554 E ; democracy, ib. 555 foll., 557 D ; tyranny, ib. 544 C , 562 . Cp. Government , State . Contentiousness, a characteristic of timocracy, 8. 548 . Contracts, in some states not protected by law, 8. 556 A . Contradiction , nature of, 4. 436 ; 10. 602 E ; power of, 5. 454 A . Convention, justice a matter of, 2. 359 A . Conversation, should not be personal, 6. 500 B . Conversion of the soul, 7. 518 , 521 , 525 [ cp. Laws 12. 957 E]. Cookery, art of, employed in the definition of justice, 1. 332 C . Corinthian courtesans, 3. 404 D . Corpses, not to be spoiled, 5. 469 . Correlative and relative, qualifications of, 4. 437 foll. [ cp. Gorg. 476]; how corrected, 7. 524 . Corruptio optimi pessima , 6. 491 . Corruption, the, of youth, not to be attributed to the Sophists, but to public opinion, 6. 492 A . Courage , required in the guardians, 2. 375 ; 3. 386 , 413 E , 416 E ; 4. 429 ; 6. 503 E ; inconsistent with the fear of death, 3. 386 ; 6. 486 A ; = the preservation of a right opinion about objects of fear, 4. 429 , 442 B (cp. 2. 376 , and Laches 193, 195); distinguished from fearlessness, 4. 430 B ; one of the philosopher’s virtues, 6. 486 A , 490 E , 494 A : —the courageous temper averse to intellectual toil, ib. 503 D [ cp. Pol. 306, 307]. Courtesans, 3. 404 D . Covetousness, not found in the philosopher, 6. 485 E ; characteristic of timocracy and oligarchy, 8. 548 , 553 ; = the appetitive element of the soul, 9. 581 A . Cowardice in war, to be punished, 5. 468 A ; not found in the philosopher, 6. 486 B . Creophylus, ‘the child of flesh,’ companion of Homer, 10. 600 B . Crete, government of, generally applauded, 8. 544 C ; a timocracy, ib. 545 B ; —Cretans, naked exercises among, 5. 452 C ; call their country ‘mother-land,’ 9. 575 E ; —Cretic rhythm, 3. 400 B . Crimes, great and small, differently estimated by mankind, 1. 344 (cp. 348 D ); causes of, 6. 491 E , 495 B ; 8. 552 D ; 9. 575 A . Criminals, are usually men of great character spoiled by bad education, 6. 491 E , 495 B ; numerous in oligarchies, 8. 552 D . Croesus, 2. 359 C ; ‘as the oracle said to Croesus,’ 8. 566 C . Cronos, ill treated by Zeus, 2. 377 E ; his behaviour to Uranus, ibid. Cunning man, the, no match for the virtuous, 3. 409 D . Cycles , recurrence of, in nature, 8. 546 A [ cp. Tim. 22 C; Crit. 109 D; Pol. 269 foll.; Laws 3. 677]. D. Dactylic metre, 3. 400 C . Daedalus, beauty of his works, 7. 529 E . Damon, an authority on rhythm, 3. 400 B (cp. 4. 424 C ). Dancing (in education), 3. 412 B . Day-dreams, 5. 458 A , 476 C . Dead (in battle) not to be stripped, 5. 469 ; judgment of the dead, 10. 615 . Death, the approach of, brings no terror to the aged, 1. 330 E ; the guardians must have no fear of, 3. 386 , 387 (cp. 6. 486 C ); preferable to slavery, 3. 387 A . Debts, abolition of, proclaimed by demagogues, 8. 565 E , 566 E . Delphi, religion left to the god at, 4. 427 A (cp. 5. 461 E , 469 A ; 7. 540 B ). Demagogues, 8. 564 , 565 . Democracy, 1. 338 D ; spoken of under the parable of the captain and the mutinous crew, 6. 488 ; democracy and philosophy, ib. 494 , 500 ; the third form of imperfect state, 8. 544 [ cp. Pol. 291, 292]; detailed account of, ib. 555 foll.; characterised by freedom, ib. 557 B , 561 –563; a ‘bazaar of constitutions,’ ib. 557 D ; the humours of democracy, ib. E, 561 ; elements contained in, ib. 564 . —democracy in animals, ib. 563 : —the democratical man, ib. 558 , 559 foll., 561 , 562 ; 9. 572 ; his place in regard to pleasure, 9. 587 . Desire, has a relaxing effect on the soul, 4. 430 A ; the conflict of desire and reason, 4. 440 [ cp. Phaedr. 253 foll.; Tim. 70 A]; —the desires divided into simple and qualified, 4. 437 foll.; into necessary and unnecessary, 8. 559 . Despots (masters), 5. 463 A . See Tyrant . Destiny, the, of man in his own power, 10. 617 E . Dialectic , the most difficult branch of philosophy, 6. 498 ; objects of, ib. 511 ; 7. 537 D ; proceeds by a double method, 6. 511 ; compared to sight, 7. 532 A ; capable of attaining to the idea of good, ibid. ; gives firmness to hypotheses, ib. 533 ; the coping stone of the sciences, ib. 534 [ cp. Phil. 57]; must be studied by the rulers, ib. 537 ; dangers of the study, ibid. ; years to be spent in, ib. 539 ; distinguished from eristic, ib. D (cp. 5. 454 A ; 6. 499 A ): —the dialectician has a conception of essence, 7. 534 [ cp. Phaedo 75 D]. Dialectic. [ Dialectic, the ‘coping stone of knowledge,’ is everywhere distinguished by Plato from eristic, i.e., argument for argument’s sake [ cp. Euthyd. 275 foll., 293; Meno 75 D; Phaedo 101; Phil. 17; Theaet. 167 E]. It is that ‘gift of heaven’ (Phil. 16) which teaches men to employ the hypotheses of science, not as final results, but as points from which the mind may rise into the higher heaven of ideas and behold truth and being. This vague and magnificent conception was probably hardly clearer to Plato himself when he wrote the Republic than it is to us [ cp. Introduction, p. xcii. ]; but in the Sophist and Statesman it appears in a more definite form as a combination of analysis and synthesis by which we arrive at a true notion of things. [ Cp. the ὑφηγημένη μεθόδος of Aristotle (Pol. i. 1, § 3; 8, § 1), which is an analogous mode of proceeding from the parts to the whole. ] In the Laws dialectic no longer occupies a prominent place; it is the ‘old man’s harmless amusement’ (7. 820 C), or, regarded more seriously, the method of discussion by question and answer, which is abused by the natural philosophers to disprove the existence of the Gods (10. 891).] Dice ( κύβοι ), 10. 604 C ; skill required in dice-playing, 2. 374 C . Diet, 3. 404 ; 8. 559 C [ cp. Tim. 89]. Differences, accidental and essential, 5. 454 . Diomede, his command to the Greeks (Iliad iv. 412), 3. 389 E ; ‘necessity of,’ (proverb), 6. 493 D . Dionysiac festival (at Athens), 5. 475 D . Discord, causes of, 5. 462 ; 8. 547 A , 556 E ; the ruin of states, 5. 462 ; distinguished from war, ib. 470 [ cp. Laws 1. 628, 629]. Discourse, love of, 1. 328 A ; 5. 450 B ; increases in old age, 1. 328 D ; pleasure of, in the other world, 6. 498 D [ cp. Apol. 41]. Disease, origin of, 3. 404 ; the right treatment of, ib. 405 foll.; the physician must have experience of, in his own person, ib. 408 ; disease and vice compared, 4. 444 ; 10. 609 foll. [ cp. Soph. 228; Pol. 296; Laws 10. 906]; inherent in everything, 10. 609 . Dishonesty, thought by men to be more profitable than honesty, 2. 364 A . Dithyrambic poetry, nature of, 3. 394 B . Diversities of natural gifts, 2. 370 ; 5. 455 ; 7. 535 A . Division of labour, 2. 370 , 374 A ; 3. 394 E , 395 B , 397 E ; 4. 423 E , 433 A , 435 A , 441 E , 443 , 453 B ; a part of justice, 4. 433 , 435 A , 441 E (cp. supra 1. 332 , 349 , 350 , and Laws 8. 846 C); —of lands, proclaimed by the would-be tyrant, 8. 565 E , 566 E . Doctors, flourish when luxury increases in the state, 2. 373 C ; 3. 405 A ; two kinds of, 5. 459 C [ cp. Laws 4. 720; 9. 857 D]. Cp. Physician . Dog, Socrates’ oath by the, 3. 399 E ; 8. 567 E ; 9. 592 ; —dogs are philosophers, 2. 376 ; the guardians the watch-dogs of the state, ibid. ; 4. 440 D ; 5. 451 D ; breeding of dogs, 5. 459 . Dolphin, Arion’s, 5. 453 E . Dorian harmony, allowed, with the Phrygian, in the state, 3. 399 A . Draughts, 1. 333 A ; skill required in, 2. 374 C ; —comparison of an argument to a game of draughts, 6. 487 C . Dreams, an indication of the bestial element in human nature, 9. 571 , 572 , 574 E . Drones, the, 8. 552 , 554 C , 555 E , 559 C , 564 B , 567 E ; 9. 573 A [ cp. Laws 10. 901 A]. Drunkenness , in heaven, 2. 363 D ; forbidden in the guardians, 3. 398 E , 403 E ; —the drunken man apt to be tyrannical, 8. 573 C . Cp. Intoxication . Dyeing, 4. 429 D . E. Early society, 2. 359 . Eating, pleasure accompanying, 8. 559 . Education , commonly divided into gymnastic for the body and music for the soul, 2. 376 E , 403 ( see Gymnastic , Music , and cp. Laws 7. 795 E); both music and gymnastic really designed for the soul, 3. 410 : —use of fiction in, 2. 377 foll.; 3. 391 ; the poets bad educators, 2. 377 ; 3. 391 , 392 , 408 B ; 10. 600 , 606 E , 607 B [ cp. Laws 10. 886 C, 890 A]; must be simple, 3. 397 , 404 E ; melody in, ib. 398 foll.; mimetic art in, ib. 399 ; importance of good surroundings, ib. 401 ; influence of, on manners, 4. 424 , 425 ; innovation in, dangerous, ibid. ; early, should be given through amusement, ib. 425 A ; 7. 536 E [ cp. Laws 1. 643 B]; ought to be the same for men and women, 5. 451 foll., 466 ; dangerous when ill-directed, 6. 491 ; not a process of acquisition, but the use of powers already existing in us, 7. 518 ; not to be compulsory, ib. 537 A ; —education of the guardians, 2. 376 foll.; 4. 429 , 430 ; 7. 521 (cp. Guardians , Ruler ); —the higher or philosophic education, 6. 498 , 503 E , 504 ; 7. 514 –537; age at which it should commence, 6. 498 ; 7. 537 ; ‘the longer way,’ 6. 504 (cp. 4. 435 ); ‘the prelude or preamble,’ 7. 532 E . Education. [ Education in the Republic is divided into two parts, (i) the common education of the citizens; (ii) the special education of the rulers. (i) The first, beginning with childhood in the plays of the children [ cp. Laws 1. 643 B], is the old Hellenic education, [ the καταβεβλημένα παιδεύματα of Aristotle , Pol. viii. 2, § 6], — ‘music for the mind and gymnastic for the body’ [ cp. Laws 7. 795 E]. But Plato soon discovers that both are really intended for the benefit of the soul [ cp. Laws 5. 743 D]; and under ‘music’ he includes literature ( λόγοι ), i.e. humane culture as distinguished from scientific knowledge. Music precedes gymnastic; both are not to be learned together; only the simpler kinds of either are tolerated [ cp. Laws Book VII, passim ]. Boys and girls share equally in both [ cp. Laws 7. 794 D]. The greatest attention must be paid to good surroundings; nothing mean or vile must meet the eye or strike the ear of the young scholar. The fairy tales of childhood and the fictions of the poets are alike placed under censorship [ cp. Laws Book X, and see s. v. Poetry ]. Gentleness is to be united with manliness; beauty of form and activity of mind are to mingle in perfect and harmonious accord. —(ii) The special education commences at twenty by the selection of the most promising students. These spend ten years in the acquisition of the higher branches of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, harmony [ cp. Laws 7. 817 E], which are not to be pursued in a scientific spirit or for utility only, but rather with a view to their combination by means of dialectic into an ideal of all knowledge ( see s. v. Dialectic ). At thirty a further selection is made: those selected spend five years in the study of philosophy, are then sent into active life for fifteen years, and finally after fifty return to philosophy, which for the remainder of their days is to form their chief occupation ( see s. v. Rulers ).] Egyptians, characterised by love of money, 4. 435 E . Elder, the, to bear rule in the state, 3. 412 B [ cp. Laws 3. 690 A; 4. 714 E]; to be over the younger, 5. 465 A [ cp. Laws 4. 721 D; 9. 879 C; 11. 917 A]. Embroidery, art of, 3. 401 A . Enchantments, used by mendicant prophets, 2. 364 B ; —enchantments, i.e. tests to which the guardians are to be subjected, 3. 413 (cp. 6. 503 A ; 7. 539 E ). End, the, and use of the soul, 1. 353 : —ends and excellencies ( ἀρεταὶ ) of things, ibid. ; things distinguished by their ends, 5. 478 . Endurance, must be inculcated on the young, 3. 390 C (cp. 10. 605 E ). Enemies, treatment of, 5. 469 . Enquiry, roused by some objects of sense, 7. 523 . Epeus, soul of, turns into a woman, 10. 620 C . Epic poetry, a combination of imitation and narration, 3. 394 B , 396 E ; —epic poets, imitators in the highest degree, 10. 602 C . Er, myth of, 10. 614 B foll. Eriphyle, 9. 590 A . Eristic, distinguished from dialectic, 5. 454 A ; 6. 499 A ; 7. 539 D . Error, not possible in the skilled person (Thrasymachus), 1. 340 D . Essence and the good, 6. 509 ; essence of the invariable, 9. 585 ; —essence of things, 6. 507 B ; apprehended by the dialectician, 7. 534 B . Eternity, contrasted with human life, 10. 608 D . Eumolpus, son of Musaeus, 2. 363 D . Eunuch, the riddle of the, 5. 479 . Euripides, a great tragedian, 8. 568 A ; his maxims about tyrants, ibid. : —quoted, Troades, l. 1169, ibid. Eurypylus, treatment of the wounded, 3. 405 E , 408 A . Euthydemus, brother of Polemarchus, 1. 328 B . Evil, God not the author of, 2. 364 , 379 , 380 A ; 3. 391 E [ cp. Laws 2. 672 B]; the destructive element in the soul, 10. 609 foll. (cp. 4. 444 ): —justice must exist even among the evil, 1. 351 foll.; their supposed prosperity, 2. 364 [ cp. Gorg. 470 foll.; Laws 2. 66 1; 10. 899, 905]; more numerous than the good, 3. 409 D . Cp. Injustice . Excellence relative to use, 10. 601 ; excellences ( ἀρεταὶ ) and ends of things, 1. 353 . Exchange, the art of, necessary in the formation of the state, 2. 369 C . Exercises, naked, in Greece, 5. 452 . Existence, a participation in essence, 9. 585 [ cp. Phaedo 101]. Experience, the criterion of true and false pleasures, 9. 582 . Expiation of guilt, 2. 364 . Eye of the soul, 7. 518 D , 527 E , 533 D , 540 A ; —the soul like the eye, 6. 508 ; 7. 518 : —Eyes, the, in relation to sight, 6. 507 (cp. Sight ). F. Fact and ideal, 5. 472 , 473 . Faculties, how different, 5. 477 ; —faculties of the soul, 6. 511 E ; 7. 533 E . Faith [or Persuasion], one of the faculties of the soul, 6. 511 D ; 7. 533 E . Falsehood, alien to the nature of God, 2. 382 [ cp. Laws 11. 917 A]; a medicine, only to be used by the state, ibid. ; 3. 389 A , 414 C ; 5. 459 D [ cp. Laws 2. 663]; hateful to the philosopher, 6. 486 , 490 . Family life in the state, 5. 449 ; —families in the state, ib. 461 ; —family and state, ib. 463 ; —cares of family life, ib. 465 C . Fates, the, 10. 617 , 620 E . Fear, a solvent of the soul, 4. 430 A ; fear and shame, 5. 465 A . Fearlessness, distinguished from courage, 4. 430 B [ cp. Laches 197 B; Protag. 349 C, 359 foll.]. Feeling, community of, in the state, 5. 464 . Festival of the Bendidea (at the Piraeus), 1. 327 A , 354 A ; of Dionysus (at Athens), 5. 475 D . Fiction in education, 2. 377 foll.; 3. 391 ; censorship of, necessary, 2. 377 foll.; 3. 386 –391, 401 A , 408 C ; 10. 595 foll.; not to represent sorrow, 3. 387 foll. (cp. 10. 604 ); representing intemperance to be discarded, 3. 390 ; —stories about the gods, not to be received, 2. 378 foll.; 3. 388 foll., 408 C [ cp. Euthyph. 6, 8; Crit. 109 B; Laws 2. 672 B; 10. 886 C; 12. 941]; —stories of the world below, objectionable, 3. 386 foll. (cp. Hades , World below ). Final causes, argument from, applied to justice, 1. 352 . Fire, obtained by friction, 4. 434 E . Flattery, of the multitude by their leaders, in ill-ordered states, 4. 426 (cp. 9. 590 B ). Flute, the, to be rejected, 3. 399 ; —flute players and flute makers, ib. D ; 10. 601 . Folly, an inanition ( κένωσις ) of the soul, 9. 585 A . Food, the condition of life and existence, 2. 369 C . Forgetfulness, a mark of an unphilosophical nature, 6. 486 D , 490 E : —the plain of Forgetfulness (Lethe), 10. 621 A . Fox, the emblem of subtlety, 2. 365 C . Fractions, 7. 525 E . Freedom, the characteristic of democracy, 8. 557 B , 561 –563. Friend, the, must be as well as seem good, 1. 334 , 335 ; —the friends of the tyrant, 8. 567 E ; 9. 576 . Friendship, implies justice, 1. 351 foll.; in the state, 5. 462 , 463 . Funeral of the guardians, 5. 465 E , 468 E ; 7. 540 B ; —corpses placed on the pyre on the twelfth day, 10. 614 . Future life, 3. 387 ; 10. 614 foll.; punishment of the wicked in, 2. 363 ; 10. 615 [ cp. Phaedo 108; Gorg. 523 E , 525; Laws 9. 870 E, 881 B; 10. 904 C]. See Hades , World below . G. Games, as a means of education, 4. 425 A (cp. 7. 537 A ); —dice ( κύβοι ), 10. 604 C ; —draughts ( πεττεία ), 1. 333 A ; 2. 374 C ; 6. 487 C ; —city ( πόλις ), 4. 422 E : —[the Olympic, &c.] glory gained by success in, 5. 465 D , 466 A ; 10. 618 A (cp. 620 B ). General, the, ought to know arithmetic and geometry, 7. 522 D , 525 B , 526 D , 527 C . Gentleness, characteristic of the philosopher, 2. 375 , 376 ; 3. 410 ; 6. 486 C ; usually inconsistent with spirit, 2. 375 . Geometry, must be learnt by the rulers, 7. 526 foll.; erroneously thought to serve for practical purposes only, ib. 527 ; —geometry of solids, ib. 528 ; —geometrical necessity, 5. 458 D ; —geometrical notions apprehended by a faculty of the soul, 6. 511 C . Giants, battles of the, 2. 378 B . Gifts, given to victors, 3. 414 ; 5. 460 , 468 ; —gifts of nature, 2. 370 A; 5. 455 ; 7. 535 A ; may be perverted, 6. 491 E , 495 A ; 7. 519 [ cp. Laws 7. 819 A; 10. 908 C]. Glaucon, son of Ariston, 1. 327 A ; 2. 368 A ; takes up the discourse, 1. 347 A ; 2. 372 C ; 3. 398 B ; 4. 427 D ; 5. 450 A ; 6. 506 D ; 9. 576 B ; anxious to contribute money for Socrates, 1. 337 E ; the boldest of men, 2. 357 A ; his genius, ib. 368 A ; distinguished at the battle of Megara, ibid. ; a musician, 3. 398 D ; 7. 531 A ; desirous that Socrates should discuss the subject of women and children, 5. 450 A ; breeds dogs and birds, ib. 459 A ; a lover, ib. 474 D (cp. 3. 402 E ; 5. 458 E ); not a dialectician, 7. 533 ; his contentiousness, 8. 548 E ; not acquainted with the doctrine of the immortality of the soul, 10. 608 . Glaucus, the sea-god, 10. 611 C . Gluttony, 9. 586 A . God , not the author of evil, 2. 364 , 379 , 380 A ; 3. 391 E [ cp. Laws 2. 672 B]; never changes, 2. 380 ; will not lie, ib. 382 ; the maker of all things, 10. 598 : —Gods, the, thought to favour the unjust, 2. 362 B , 364 ; supposed to accept the gifts of the wicked, ib. 365 [ cp. Laws 4. 716 E; 10. 905 foll.; 12. 948]; believed to take no heed of human affairs, 2. 365 [ cp. Laws 10. 889 foll.; 12. 948]; human ignorance of, 2. 365 [ cp. Crat 400 E; Crit. 107; Parm. 134 E]; disbelief in, 2. 365 [ cp. Laws 10. 885 foll., 909; 12. 948]; stories of, not to be repeated, 2. 378 foll.; 3. 388 foll., 408 C [ cp. Euthyph. 6, 8; Crit. 109 B; Laws 2. 672 B; 10. 886 C; 12. 941]; not to be represented grieving or laughing, 3. 388 ; —‘gods who wander about at night in the disguise of strangers,’ 2. 381 D ; —the war of the gods and the giants, ib. 378 B . God. [ The theology of Plato is summed up by himself in the second book of the Republic under two heads, ‘God is perfect and unchangeable,’ and ‘God is true and the author of truth.’ These canons are also the test by which he tries poetry and the poets ( see s. v. Poetry ):— Homer and the tragedians represent the Gods as changing their forms or as deceiving men by lying dreams, and therefore they must be expelled from the state. But Plato has not yet acquired the austere temper of his later years. He does not threaten the impenitent unbeliever with bonds and death (Laws 10. 908, 910), but is content to show by argument the superiority of justice over injustice. In other respects the theology of the Republic is repeated and amplified in the Laws; the theses that God is not the author of evil and will not accept the gifts of the wicked or favour the unjust, are maintained with equal earnestness in both. The Republic is less pessimistic in tone than the Laws; but the thought of the insignificance of man and the briefness of human life is already familiar to Plato’s mind [ cp. 6. 486 A ; 10. 604 ; and see s. v. Man ]. The conception of God as the Demiurgus or Creator of the universe, which is prominent in the Timaeus, Sophist, and Statesman, hardly appears either in the Republic or the Laws ( cp. Rep. 10. 596 foll.; Laws 10. 886 foll.).] Gold, mingled by the God in the auxiliaries, 3. 415 A (cp. 416 E ; 8. 547 A ); —[and silver] not allowed to the guardians, 3. 416 E ; 4. 419 , 422 D ; 5. 464 D (cp. 8. 543 ). Good, the saving element, 10. 609 : —the good = the beautiful, 5. 452 [ cp. Lys. 216; Symp. 201 B, 204 E foll.]; the good and pleasure, 6. 505 , 509 A [ cp. Gorg. 497; Phil. 11, 60 A]; the good superior to essence, ib. 509 ; the brightest and best of being, 7. 518 D ; —absolute good, 6. 507 B ; 7. 540 A ; —the idea of good, 6. 505 , 508 ; 7. 517 , 534 ; is the highest knowledge, 6. 505 ; 7. 526 E ; nature of, 6. 505 , 506 ; —the child of the good, ib. 506 E , 508 : —good things least liable to change, 2. 381 ; —goods classified, ib. 357 , 367 D [ cp. Protag. 334; Gorg. 451 E ; Phil. 66; Laws 1. 631; 3. 697]; —the goods of life often a temptation, 6. 491 E , 495 A . Good man, the, will disdain to imitate ignoble actions, 3. 396 : —Good men, why they take office, 1. 347 ; = the wise, ib. 350 [ cp. 1 Alcib. 124, 125]; unfortunate (Adeimantus), 2. 364 ; self-sufficient, 3. 387 [ cp. Lys. 215 A]; will not give way to sorrow, ibid. ; 10. 603 E [ cp. Laws 5. 732; 7. 792 B, 800 D]; appear simple from their inexperience of evil, 3. 409 A ; hate the tyrant, 8. 568 A ; the friends of God and like Him, 10. 613 [ cp. Phil. 39 E; Laws 4. 716]. Goods, community of, 3. 416 ; 5. 464 ; 8. 543 . See Community . Government , forms of, are they administered in the interest of the rulers? 1. 338 D , 343 , 346 ; are all based on a principle of justice, ib. 338 E [ cp. Laws 12. 945]; present forms in an evil condition, 6. 492 E , 496 ; none of the existing forms adapted to philosophy, ib. 497 ; —the four imperfect forms, 4. 445 B ; 8. 544 [ cp. Pol. 291 foll., 301 foll.]; succession of changes in states, 8. 545 foll.; —peculiar barbarian forms, ib. 544 D . Cp. Constitution , State . Government, forms of. [ The classification of forms of government which Plato adopts in the Republic is not exactly the same with that given in the Statesman or the Laws. Both in the Republic and the Statesman the series commences with the perfect state, which may be either monarchy or aristocracy, accordingly as the ‘one best man’ bears rule or many who are all ‘perfect in virtue’ [ cp. Arist. Pol. iv. 2, § 1]. But in the Republic the further succession is somewhat fancifully connected with the divisions of the soul. The rule of reason [ i.e. the perfect state ] passes into timocracy, in which the ‘spirited element’ is predominant (8. 548 ), timocracy into three governments in turn, which represent the ‘appetitive principle,’—first, oligarchy, in which the desire of wealth is supreme (8. 533 D ; 9. 581 ); secondly, democracy, characterised by an unbounded lust for freedom (9. 561 ); thirdly, tyranny, in which all evil desires grow unchecked, and the tyrant becomes ‘the waking reality of what he once was in his dreams only’ (9. 574 E ). Each of these inferior forms is illustrated in the individual who corresponds to the state and ‘is set over against it’ (8. 550 C ). In the Statesman, after the government of the one or many good has been separated, the remaining forms are classified accordingly as the government has or has not regard to law, and democracy is said to be (303 A) ‘the worst of lawful and the best of lawless governments’ ( an expression criticised by Aristotle, Pol. iv. 2, § 3). In the Laws again the subject is differently treated: monarchy and democracy are described as ‘the two mother forms,’ which must be combined in order to produce a good state (3. 693), and the Spartan and Cretan constitutions are therefore praised as polities in which every form of government is represented (4. 712). But the majority of existing states are mere class governments and have no regard to virtue (12. 962 E). These various ideas are nearly all reproduced or criticised in the Politics of Aristotle, who, however, does not employ the term ‘timocracy,’ and adds one great original conception,—the μεσὴ πολιτεία , or government of the middle class. ] Governments, sometimes bought and sold, 8. 544 D . Grace ( εὐσχημοσύνη ), the effect of good rhythm accompanying good style, 3. 400 D ; all life and every art full of grace, ib. 401 A . Greatness and smallness, 4. 438 B ; 5. 479 B ; 7. 523 , 524 ; 9. 575 C ; 10. 602 D , 605 C . Grief, not to be indulged, 3. 387 ; 10. 603 –606. Cp. Sorrow . Guard, the tyrant’s request for a, 8. 566 B , 567 E . Guardians of the state, must be philosophers, 2. 376 ; 6. 484 , 498 , 501 , 503 B ; 7. 520 , 521 , 525 B , 540 ; 8. 543 ; must be both spirited and gentle, 2. 375 ; 3. 410 ; 6. 503 [ cp. Laws 5. 731 B]; must be tested by pleasures and pains, 3. 413 (cp. 6. 503 A ; 7. 539 E ); have gold and silver mingled in their veins, 3. 415 A (cp. 416 E ; 8. 547 A ); their happiness, 4. 419 foll.; 5. 465 E foll.; 6. 498 C ; 7. 519 E ; will be the class in the state which possesses wisdom, 4. 428 [ cp. Laws 12. 965 A]; will form one family with the citizens, 5. 462 –466; must preserve moderation, ib. 466 B ; divided into auxiliaries and guardians proper, 3. 414 (cp. 8. 545 E ; and see Auxiliaries , Rulers ): —the guardians [i.e. the auxiliaries] must be courageous, 2. 375 ; 3. 386 , 413 E , 416 E ; 4. 429 ; 6. 503 E ; must have no fear of death, 3. 386 (cp. 6. 486 C ); not to weep, 3. 387 (cp. 10. 603 E ); nor to be given to laughter, 3. 388 [ cp. Laws 5. 732; 11. 935]; must be temperate, ib. 389 D ; must not be avaricious, ib. 390 E ; must only imitate noble characters and actions, ib. 395 foll., 402 E ; must only learn the Dorian and Phrygian harmonies, and play on the lyre and harp, ib. 398 , 399 ; must be sober, ib. 398 E , 403 E ; must be reared amid fair surroundings, ib. 401 ; athletes of war, ib. 403 , 404 B ; 4. 422 ; 7. 521 E ; 8. 543 [ cp. Laws 8. 830]; must live according to rule, 3. 404 ; will not go to law or have resort to medicine, ib. 410 A ; must have common meals and live a soldier’s life, ib. 416 ; will not require gold or silver or property of any kind, ib. 417 ; 4. 419 , 420 A , 422 D ; 5. 464 C ; compared to a garrison of mercenaries (Adeimantus), 4. 419 (cp. 8. 543 ); must go to war on horseback in their childhood, 5. 467 ; 7. 537 A ; regulations for their conduct in war, 5. 467 –471: —female guardians, ib. , 456 , 458 , 468 ; 7. 540 C (cp. Women ). Gyges, 2. 359 C ; 10. 612 B . Gymnastic , supposed to be intended only for the body, 2. 376 E ; 3. 403 ; 7. 521 [ cp. Laws 7. 795 E]; really designed for the improvement of the soul, 3. 410 ; like music, should be continued throughout life, ib. 403 C ; effect of excessive, ib. 404 , 410 ; 7. 537 B ; should be of a simple character, 3. 404 , 410 A ; the ancient forms of, to be retained, 4. 424 ; must co-operate with music in creating a harmony of the soul, ib. 441 E ; suitable to women, 5. 452 –457 [ cp. Laws 7. 804, 813, 833]; ought to be combined with intellectual pursuits, 7. 535 D [ cp. Tim. 88]; time to be spent in, ib. 537 . H. Habit and virtue, 7. 518 E ; 10. 619 D . Hades , tales about the terrors of, 1. 330 D ; 2. 366 A ; such tales not to be heeded, 3. 386 B [ cp. Crat. 403]; —the place of punishment, 2. 363 ; 10. 614 foll.; Musaeus’ account of the good and bad in, 2. 363 ; —the journey to, 10. 614 [ cp. Phaedo 108 A]: —(Pluto) helmet of, 10. 612 B . Cp. World below . Half, the, better than the whole, 5. 466 B . Handicraft arts, a reproach, 9. 590 [ cp. Gorg. 512]. Happiness of the unjust, 1. 354 ; 2. 364 ; 3. 392 B (cp. 8. 545 A , and Gorg. 470 foll.; Laws 2. 661; 10. 899 E, 905 A); —of the guardians, 4. 576 foll.; 5. 465 E foll.; 6. 498 C ; 7. 519 E ; —of Olympic victors, 5. 465 D , 466 A ; 10. 618 A ; —of the tyrant, 9. 576 foll., 587 ; —the greatest happiness awarded to the most just, ib. 580 foll. Harmonies, the more complex to be rejected, 3. 397 foll.; —the Lydian harmony, ib. 398 ; the Ionian, ib. E; the Dorian and Phrygian alone to be accepted, ib. 399 . Harmony, akin to virtue, 3. 401 A (cp. 7. 522 A ); —science of, must be acquired by the rulers, 7. 531 (cp. Music ); —harmony of soul and body, 3. 402 D ; —harmony of the soul, effected by temperance, 4. 430 , 441 E , 442 D , 443 (cp. 9. 591 D , and Laws 2. 653 B); —harmony in the acquisition of wealth, 9. 591 E . Harp , the, ( κιθάρα ), allowed in the best state, 3. 399 . Hatred, between the despot and his subjects, 8. 567 E ; 9. 576 A . Health and justice compared, 4. 444 ; pleasure of health, 9. 583 C ; secondary to virtue, ib. 591 D . Hearing, classed among faculties, 5. 477 E ; composed of two elements, speech and hearing, and not requiring, like sight, a third intermediate nature, 6. 507 C . Heaven, the starry, the fairest of visible things, 7. 529 D ; the motions of, not eternal, ib. 530 A . Heaviness, 5. 479 ; 7. 524 A . Hector, dragged by Achilles round the tomb of Patroclus, 3. 391 B . Helen, never went to Troy, 9. 586 C . Hellas, not to be devastated in civil war, 5. 470 A foll., 471 A : —Hellenes characterised by the love of knowledge, 4. 435 E ; did not originally strip in the gymnasia, 5. 452 D ; not to be enslaved by Hellenes, ib. 469 B , C ; united by ties of blood, ib. 470 C ; not to devastate Hellas, ib. 471 A foll.; Hellenes and barbarians are strangers, ib. 469 D , 470 C [ cp. Pol. 262 D]. Hellespont, 3. 404 C . Hephaestus, binds Herè, 2. 378 D ; thrown from heaven by Zeus, ibid. ; improperly delineated by Homer, 3. 389 A ; chains Ares and Aphroditè, ib. 390 C . Heracleitus, the ‘sun of,’ 6. 498 B . Herè, bound by Hephaestus, 2. 378 D ; Herè and Zeus, ibid. ; 3. 390 B ; begged alms for the daughters of Inachus, 2. 381 D . Hermes, the star sacred to (Mercury), 10. 617 A . Hermus, 8. 566 C . Herodicus of Selymbria, the inventor of valetudinarianism, 3. 406 A foll. Heroes, not to lament, 3. 387 , 388 ; 10. 603 –606; to be rewarded, 5. 468 ; after death, ibid. Heroic rhythm, 3. 400 C . Hesiod, his rewards of justice, 2. 363 B ; 10. 612 A ; his stories improper for youth, 2. 377 D ; his classification of the races, 8. 547 A ; a wandering rhapsode, 10. 600 D :— Quoted:— Theogony, l. 154, 459, 2. 377 E . Works and Days, l. 40, 5. 466 B . l. 109, 8. 546 E . l. 122, 5. 468 E . l. 233, 2. 363 B . l. 287, ib. 364 D . Fragm. 117, 3. 390 E . Hirelings, required in the state, 2. 371 E . Holiness of marriage, 5. 458 E , 459 [ cp. Laws 6. 776]. See Marriage . Homer , supports the theory that justice is a thief, 1. 334 B ; his rewards of justice, 2. 363 B ; 10. 612 A ; his stories not approved for youth, 2. 377 D foll. (cp. 10. 595 ); his mode of narration, 3. 393 A foll.; feeds his heroes on campaigners’ fare, ib. 404 C ; Socrates’ feeling of reverence for him, 10. 595 C , 607 (cp. 3. 391 A ); the captain and teacher of the tragic poets, 10. 595 B , 598 D , E; not a legislator, ib. 599 E ; or a general, ib. 600 A [ cp. Ion 537 foll.]; or inventor, ibid. ; or teacher, ibid. ; no educator, ib. 600 , 606 E , 607 B ; not much esteemed in his lifetime, ib. 600 B foll.; went about as a rhapsode, ibid. Passages quoted or referred to:— Iliad i. l. 11 foll., 3. 392 E foll. l. 131, 6. 501 B . l. 225, 3. 389 E . l. 590 foll., 2. 378 D . l. 599 foll., 3. 389 A . Iliad ii. l. 623, 6. 501 C . Iliad iii. l. 8, 3. 389 E . Iliad iv. l. 69 foll., 2. 379 E . l. 218, 3. 408 A . l. 412, ib. 389 E . l. 431, ibid. Iliad v. l. 845, 10. 612 B . Iliad vii. l. 321, 5. 468 D . Iliad viii. l. 162, ibid. Iliad ix. l. 497 foll., 2. 364 D . l. 513 foll., 3. 390 E . Iliad xi. l. 576, ib. 405 E . l. 624, ibid. l. 844, ib. 408 A . Iliad xii. l. 311, 5. 468 E . Iliad xiv. l. 294 foll., 3. 390 C . Iliad xvi. l. 433, ib. 388 C . l. 776, 8. 566 D . l. 856 foll., 3. 386 E . Iliad xviii. l. 23 foll., ib. 388 A . l. 54, ib. B . Iliad xix. l. 278 foll., ib. 390 E . Iliad xx. l. 4 foll., 2. 379 E . l. 64 foll., 3. 386 C . Iliad xxi. l. 222 foll., ib. 391 B . Iliad xxii. ll. 15, 20, ib. A . l. 168 foll., ib. 388 C . l. 362 foll., ib. 386 E . l. 414, ib. 388 B . Iliad xxiii. l. 100 foll., ib. 387 A . l. 103 foll., ib. 386 D . l. 151 ib. 391 B . l. 175 ibid. Iliad xxiv. l. 10 foll., ib. 388 A . l. 527, 2. 379 D . Odyssey i. l. 351 foll., 4. 424 D . Odyssey viii. l. 266 foll., 3. 390 D . Odyssey ix. l. 9. foll., ib. B . l. 91 foll., 8. 560 C . Odyssey x. l. 495, 3. 386 E . Odyssey xi. l. 489 foll., ib. C ; 7. 516 D . Odyssey xii. l. 342, 3. 390 B . Odyssey xvii. l. 383 foll., ib. 389 D . l. 485 foll., 2. 381 D . Odyssey xix. l. 109 foll., ib. 363 B . l. 395, 1. 334 B . Odyssey xx. l. 17, 3. 390 D ; 4. 441 B . Odyssey xxiv. l. 6, 3. 387 A . l. 40, 8. 566 D . Homer, allusions to, 1. 328 E ; 2. 381 D ; 3. 390 E ; 8. 544 D . Homeridae, 10. 599 E . Honest man, the, a match for the rogue, 3. 409 C (cp. 10. 613 C ). Honesty, fostered by the possession of wealth, 1. 331 A ; thought by mankind to be unprofitable, 2. 364 A ; 3. 392 B . Honour, pleasures enjoyed by the lover of, 9. 581 C , 586 E : —the ‘government of honour,’ see Timocracy . Hope, the comfort of the righteous in old age (Pindar), 1. 331 A . Household cares, 5. 465 C . Human interests, unimportance of, 10. 604 B (cp. 6. 486 A , and Theaet. 173; Laws 1. 644 E; 7. 803); —life, full of evils, 2. 379 C ; shortness of, 10. 608 D ; —nature, incapable of doing many things well, 3. 395 B ; —sacrifices, 8. 565 D . Hunger, 4. 437 E , 439 ; an inanition ( κένωσις ) of the body, 9. 585 A . Hymns, to the gods, may be allowed in the State, 10: 607 A [ cp. Laws 3. 700 A; 7. 801 E]; —marriage hymns, 5. 459 E . Hypothesis, in mathematics and in the intellectual world, 6. 510 ; in the sciences, 7. 533 . I. Iambic measure, 3. 400 C . Ida, altar of the gods on, 3. 391 E . Idea of good, the source of truth, 6. 508 (cp. 505 ); a cause like the sun, ib. 508 ; 7. 516 , 517 ; must be apprehended by the lover of knowledge, 7. 534 ; —ideas and phenomena, 5. 476 ; 6. 507 ; —ideas and hypotheses, 6. 510 ; —absolute ideas, 5. 476 [ cp. Phaedo 65, 74; Parm. 133]; origin of abstract ideas, 7. 523 ; nature of, 10. 596 ; singleness of, ib. 597 [ cp. Tim. 28, 51]. Idea. [ The Idea of Good is an abstraction, which, under that name at least, does not elsewhere occur in Plato’s writings. But it is probably not essentially different from another abstraction, ‘the true being of things,’ which is mentioned in many of his Dialogues [ cp. passages cited s. v. Being ]. He has nowhere given an explanation of his meaning, not because he was ‘regardless whether we understood him or not,’ but rather, perhaps, because he was himself unable to state in precise terms the ideal which floated before his mind. He belonged to an age in which men felt too strongly the first pleasure of metaphysical speculation to be able to estimate the true value of the ideas which they conceived ( cp. his own picture of the effect of dialectic on the youthful mind, 7. 539 ). To him, as to the Schoolmen of the Middle Ages, an abstraction seemed truer than a fact: he was impatient to shake off the shackles of sense and rise into the purer atmosphere of ideas. Yet in the allegory of the cave ( Book VII ), whose inhabitants must go up to the light of perfect knowledge but descend again into the obscurity of opinion, he has shown that he was not unaware of the necessity of finding a firm starting-point for these flights of metaphysical imagination ( cp. 6. 510 ). A passage in the Philebus (65 A) gives perhaps the best insight into his meaning: ‘If we are not able to hunt the good with one idea only, with three we may take our prey,—Beauty, Symmetry, Truth.’ The three were inseparable to the Greek mind, and no conception of perfection could be formed in which they did not unite. (Cp. Introduction, pp. lxix , xcvii ).] Ideal state, is it possible? 5. 471 , 473 ; 6. 499 ; 7. 540 (cp. 7. 520 , and Laws 4. 711 E; 5. 739); how to be commenced, 6. 501 ; 7. 540 : —ideals, value of, 5. 472 . For the ideal state, see City , Constitution , Education , Guardians , Rulers , etc. Ignorance, nature of, 5. 477 , 478 ; an inanition ( κένωσις ) of the soul, 9. 585 . Iliad , the style of, illustrated, 3. 392 E foll.; mentioned, ib. 393 A . Cp. Homer , Odyssey . Ilion, see Troy . Illegitimate children, 5. 461 A . Illusions of sight, 7. 523 ; 10. 602 [ cp. Phaedo 65 A; Phil. 380, 42 D; Theaet. 157 E]. Images, (i.e. reflections of visible objects), 6. 510 ; 10. 596 ( cp. Tim. 52 D). Imitation in style, 3. 393 , 394 ; 10. 596 foll., 600 foll.; affects the character, 3. 395 ; thrice removed from the truth, 10. 596 , 597 , 598 , 602 B ; concerned with the weaker part of the soul, ib. 604 . Imitative poetry, 10. 595 ; arts, inferior, ib. 605 . Imitators, ignorant, 10. 602 . Immortality, proof of, 10. 608 foll., (cp. 6. 498 C , and see Soul ). Impatience, uselessness of, 10. 604 C . Impetuosity, 6. 503 E . Inachus, Herè asks alms for the daughters of, 2. 381 D . Inanitions ( κένωσεις ) of body and soul, 9. 585 A . Incantations used by mendicant prophets, 2. 364 B ; in medicine, 4. 426 A . Income Tax, 1. 343 D . Indifference to money, characteristic of those who inherit a fortune, 1. 330 B . Individual, inferior types of the, 8. 545 ; individual and state, 2. 368 ; 4. 434 , 441 ; 5. 462 ; 8. 544 ; 9. 577 B [ cp. Laws 3. 689; 5. 739; 9. 875, 877 C; 11. 923]. Infants have spirit, but not reason, 4. 441 [ cp. Laws 12. 963 E]. Informers, 9. 575 B . Injustice , advantage of, 1. 343 ; defined by Thrasymachus as discretion, ib. 348 D ; injustice and vice, ibid. ; suicidal to states and individuals, ib. 351 E [ cp. Laws 10. 906 A]; in perfection, 2. 360 ; eulogists of, ib. 361 , 366 , 367 ; 3. 392 B ( cp. 8. 545 A ; 9. 588 ); only blamed by those who have not the power to be unjust, 2. 366 C ; in the state, 4. 434 ; = anarchy in the soul, ib. 444 B [ cp. Soph. 228]; brings no profit, 9. 589 , 590 ; 10. 613 . Innovation in education dangerous, 4. 424 [ cp. Laws 2. 656, 660 A]. See Gymnastic , Music . Intellect, objects of, classified, 7. 534 (cp. 5. 476 ); relation of the intellect and the good, 6. 508 . Intellectual world, divisions of, 6. 510 foll.; 7. 517 ; compared to the visible, 6. 508 , 509 ; 7. 532 A . Intercourse between the sexes, 5. 458 foll. [ cp. Laws 8. 839 foll.]; in a democracy, 8. 563 B . Interest, sometimes irrecoverable by law, 8. 556 A [ cp. Laws 5. 742 C]. Intermediates, 9. 583 . Intimations, the, given by the senses imperfect, 7. 523 foll.; 10. 602 . Intoxication , not allowed in the state, 3. 398 E , 403 E . Cp. Drinking . Invalids, 3. 406 , 407 ; 4. 425 , 426 . Ionian harmony, must be rejected, 3. 399 A . Iron (and brass) mingled by the God in the husbandmen and craftsmen, 3. 415 A (cp. 8. 547 A ). Ismenias, the Theban, ‘a rich and mighty man,’ 1. 336 A . Italy, ‘can tell of Charondas as a lawgiver,’ 10. 599 E . J. Judge, the good, must himself be virtuous, 3. 409 [ cp. Pol. 305]. Judgement, the final, 10. 614 foll. Cp. Hades . Juggling, 10. 602 D . Just man, the, is at a disadvantage compared with the unjust (Thrasymachus), 1. 343 ; is happy, ib. 354 [ cp. Laws 1. 660 E]; attains harmony in his soul, 4. 443 E ; proclaimed the happiest, 9. 580 foll.; —just men the friends of the gods, 10. 613 [ cp. Phil. 39 E; Laws 4. 716 D]; —just and unjust are at heart the same (Glaucon), 3. 360 . Justice , = to speak the truth and pay one’s debts, 1. 331 foll.; = the interest of the stronger, ib. 338 ; 2. 367 [ cp. Gorg. 489; Laws 4. 714 A]; = honour among thieves, 1. 352 ; = the excellence of the soul, ib. 353 : —the art which gives good and evil to friends and enemies, ib. 332 foll., 336 ; is a thief, ib. 334 ; the proper virtue of man, ib. 335 ; ‘sublime simplicity,’ ib. 348 ; does not aim at excess, ib. 349 ; identical with wisdom and virtue, ib. 351 ; a principle of harmony, ibid. (cp. 9. 591 D ); in the highest class of goods, 2. 357 , 367 D [ cp. Laws 1. 631 C]; the union of wisdom, temperance, and courage, 4. 433 [ cp. Laws 1. 631 C]; a division of labour, ibid. foll. (cp. supra , 1. 332 , 349 , 350 , and 1 Alcib. 127): —nature and origin of (Glaucon), 2. 358 , 359 ; conventional, ib. 359 A [ cp. Theaet. 172 A, 177 C; Laws 10. 889, 890]; praised for its consequences only (Adeimantus), ib. 362 E , 366 ; a matter of appearance, ib. 365 : —useful alike in war and peace, 1. 333 ; can do no harm, ib. 335 ; more precious than gold, ib. 336 ; toilsome, 2. 364 : —compared to health, 4. 444 : —the poets on, 2. 363 , 364 , 365 E : —in perfection, ib. 361 : —more profitable than injustice, 4. 445 ; 9. 589 foll.; superior to injustice, 9. 589 ; final triumph of, ib. 580 ; 10. 612 , 613 : —in the state, 2. 369 ; 4. 431 ; the same in the individual and the state, 4. 435 foll., 441 foll.: —absolute justice, 5. 479 E ; 6. 501 B ; 7. 517 E . Justice. [ The search for justice is the groundwork or foundation of the Republic, which commences with an enquiry into its nature and ends with a triumphant demonstration of the superior happiness enjoyed by the just man. In the First Book several definitions of justice are attempted, all of which prove inadequate. Glaucon and Adeimantus then intervene:—mankind regard justice as a necessity, not as a good in itself, or at best as only to be practised because of the temporal benefits which flow from it: can Socrates prove that it belongs to a higher class of goods? Socrates in reply proposes to construct an ideal state in which justice will be more easily recognised than in the individual. Justice is thus discovered to be the essential virtue of the state, ( a thesis afterwards enlarged upon by Aristotle [Pol. i. 2, § 16; iii. 13, § 3]), the bond of the social organization, and, like temperance in the Laws [3. 696, 697; 4. 709 E], rather the accompaniment or condition of the virtues than a virtue in itself [ cp. Introduction, p. lxiii ]. Expressed in an outward or political form it becomes the great principle which has been already enunciated (i. 322), ‘that every man shall do his own work;’ on this Plato bases the necessity of the division into classes which underlies the whole fabric of the ideal state (4. 433 foll.; Tim. 17 C). Thus we are led to acknowledge the happiness of the just; for he alone reflects in himself this vital principle of the state (4. 445 ). The final proof is supplied by a comparison of the perfect state with actual forms of government. These, like the individuals who correspond to them, become more and more miserable as they recede further from the ideal, and the climax is reached (9. 587 ) when the tyrant is shown by the aid of arithmetic to have ‘729 times less pleasure than the king’ [ i.e. the perfectly just ruler ]. Lastly, the happiness of the just is proved to extend also into the next world, where men appear before the judgment seat of heaven and receive the due reward of their deeds in this life. ] K. King, the Great, 8. 553 D : —pleasure of the king and the tyrant compared, 9. 587 foll.; —kings and philosophers, 5. 473 (cp. 6. 487 E , 498 foll., 501 E foll.; 7. 540 ; 8. 543 ; 9. 592 ). Kisses, the reward of the brave warrior, 5. 468 C . Knowledge ( ἐπιστήμη, γιγνώσκειν ), = knowledge of ideas, 6. 484 ; —nature of, 5. 477 , 478 ; classed among faculties, ib. 477 ; 6. 511 E ; 7. 533 E ; —previous, to birth, 7. 518 C ; —how far given by sense, ib. 529 [ cp. Phaedo 75]; —should not be acquired under compulsion, ib. 536 E ; —the foundation of courage, 4. 429 [ cp. Laches 193, 197; Protag. 350, 360]; —knowledge and opinion, 5. 476 –478; 6. 508 , 510 A ; 7. 534 ; knowledge and pleasure, 6. 505 ; knowledge and wisdom, 4. 428 ; —the highest knowledge, 6. 504 ; 7. 514 foll.; —unity of knowledge, 5. 479 [ cp. Phaedo 101]; —the best knowledge, 10. 618 ; —knowledge of shadows, 6. 511 D ; 7. 534 A : —love of knowledge characteristic of the Hellenes, 4. 435 E ; peculiar to the rational element of the soul, 9. 581 B . L. Labour, division of, 2. 370 , 374 A ; 3. 394 E , 395 B , 397 E ; 4. 423 E , 433 A , 435 A , 441 E , 443 , 453 B [ cp. Laws 8. 846, 847]. Lacedaemon , owes its good order to Lycurgus, 10. 599 E ; —constitution of, commonly extolled, 8. 544 D ; a timocracy, ib. 545 B : —Lacedaemonians first after the Cretans to strip in the gymnasia, 5. 452 D . Lachesis, turns the spindle of Necessity together with Clotho and Atropos, 10. 617 C ; her speech, ib. D ; apportions a genius to each soul, ib. 620 D . Lamentation over the dead, to be checked, 3. 387 . Lands, partition of, proclaimed by the would-be tyrant, 8. 565 E , 566 E . Language, pliability of, 9. 588 D [ cp. Soph. 277 B]. Laughter not to be allowed in the guardians, 3. 388 [ cp. Laws 5. 732; 11. 935]; nor represented in the gods, ib. 389 . Laws , may be given in error, 1. 339 E ; supposed to arise from a convention among mankind, 2. 359 A ; cause of, 3. 405 ; on special subjects of little use, 4. 425 , 426 [ cp. Laws 7. 788]; treated with contempt in democracies, 8. 563 E ; bring help to all in the state, 9. 590 . Lawyers, increase when wealth abounds, 4. 405 A . Learning, pleasure of, 6. 486 C (cp. 9. 581 , 586 ). Legislation, cannot reach the minutiae of life, 4. 425 , 426 ; requires the help of God, ib. 425 E . Cp. Laws . Leontius, story of, 4. 439 E . Lethe, 10. 621 . Letters, image of the large and small, 2. 368 ; 3. 402 A . Liberality, one of the virtues of the philosopher, 6. 485 E . Liberty, characteristic of democracy, 8. 557 B , 561 –563. Licence, begins in music, 4. 424 E [ cp. Laws 3. 701 B]; in democracies, 8. 562 D . Licentiousness forbidden, 5. 458 . Lie, a, hateful to the philosopher, 6. 490 C (cp. supra 486 E ); —the true lie and the lie in words, 2. 382 ; —the royal lie ( γενναίον ψεῦδος ), 3. 414 ; —rulers of the state may lie, 2. 382 ; 3. 389 A , 414 C ; 5. 459 D ; —the Gods not to be represented as lying, 2. 382 ; —lies of the poets, ib. 377 foll.; 3. 386 , 408 B (cp. 10. 597 foll.). Life in the early state, 2. 372 ; —loses its zest in old age, 1. 329 A ; full of evils, 2. 379 C ; intolerable without virtue, 4. 445 ; shortness of, compared to eternity, 10. 608 D ; —the life of virtue toilsome, 2. 364 D ; —the just or the unjust, which is the more advantageous? ib. 347 foll.; —three kinds of lives among men, 9. 581 ; —life of women ought to resemble that of men, 5. 451 foll. [ cp. Laws 7. 804 E]; —the necessities of life, 2. 369 , 373 A ; —the prime of life, 5. 460 E . Light, 6. 507 E . Cp. Sight , Vision . Light and heavy, 5. 479 ; 7. 524 . Like to like, 4. 425 C . Literature ( λόγοι ), included under ‘music’ in education, 2. 376 E . Litigation, the love of, ignoble, 3. 405 . Logic ; method of residues, 4. 427 ; —accidents and essence distinguished, 5. 454 ; —nature of opposition, 4. 436 ; —categories, πρός τι , 4. 437 ; quality and relation, ibid. ; —fallacies, 6. 487 . For Plato’s method of definitions, see Knowledge , Temperance ; and cp. Dialectic , Metaphysic . Lotophagi, 8. 560 C . Lots, use of, 5. 460 A , 462 E ; election by, characteristic of democracy, 8. 557 A . Love of the beautiful, 3. 402 , 403 [ cp. 1 Alcib. 131]; bodily love and true love, ib. 403 ; love and the love of knowledge, 5. 474 foll.; is of the whole, not of the part, ib. C, 475 B ; 6. 485 B ; a tyrant, 9. 573 B , 574 E (cp. 1. 329 B ): —familiarities which may be allowed between the lover and the beloved, 3. 403 B : —lovers’ names, 5. 474 : —lovers of wine, ib. 475 A : —lovers of beautiful sights and sounds, ib. 476 B , 479 A , 480 . Luxury in the state, 2. 372 , 373 ; a cause of disease, 3. 405 E ; would not give happiness to the citizens, 4. 420 , 421 ; makes men cowards, 9. 590 B . Lycaean Zeus, temple of, 8. 565 D . Lycurgus, the author of the greatness of Lacedaemon, 10. 599 E . Lydia, kingdom of, obtained by Gyges, 2. 359 C : —Lydian harmonies, to be rejected, 3. 398 E foll. Lying, a privilege of the state, 3. 389 A , 414 C ; 5. 459 D . Lyre, the instrument of Apollo, and allowed in the best state, 3. 399 D . Lysanias, father of Cephalus, 1. 330 B . Lysias, the brother of Polemarchus, 1. 328 B . M. Madman, arms not to be returned to a, 1. 331 ; fancies of madmen, 8. 573 C . Magic, 10. 602 D . Magistrates, elected by lot in democracy, 8. 557 A . Magnanimity, ( μεγαλόπρεπεια ), one of the philosopher’s virtues, 6. 486 A , 490 E , 494 A . Maker, the, not so good a judge as the user, 10. 601 C [ cp. Crat. 390]. Man , ‘the master of himself,’ 4. 430 E [ cp. Laws 1. 626 E foll.]; ‘the form and likeness of God,’ 6. 501 B [ cp. Phaedr. 248 A; Theaet. 176 C; Laws 4. 716 D]; his unimportance, 10. 604 B (cp. 6. 486 A , and Laws 1. 644 E; 7. 803); has the power to choose his own destiny, 10. 617 E ; —the one best man, 6. 502 [ cp. Pol. 301]: —Men are not just of their own will, 2. 366 C ; unite in the state in order to supply each other’s wants, ib. 369 ; —the nature of men and women, 5. 453 –455; —analogy of men and animals, ib. 459 ; —three classes of, 9. 581 . Manners, influenced by education, 4. 424 , 425 ; cannot be made the subject of legislation, ibid. ; freedom of, in democracies, 8. 563 A . ‘Many,’ the term, as applied to the beautiful, the good, &c., 6. 507 . Many , the, flatter their leaders into thinking themselves statesmen, 4. 426 ; wrong in their notions about the honourable and the good, 6. 493 E ; would lose their harsh feeling towards philosophy if they could see the true philosopher, ib. 500 ; their pleasures and pains, 9. 586 ; —‘the great beast,’ 6. 493 . Cp. Multitude . Marionette players, 7. 514 B . Marriage , holiness of, 5. 458 E , 459 ; age for, ib. 460 ; prayers and sacrifices at, ibid. ; —marriage festivals, ib. 459 , 460 . Marsyas, Apollo to be preferred to, 3. 399 E . Mathematics , 7. 522 –532; use of hypotheses in, 6. 510 ; —mathematical notions perceived by a faculty of the soul, 6. 511 C : —the mathematician not usually a dialectician, 7. 531 E . Mean, happiness of the, 10. 619 A [ cp. Laws 3. 679 A; 5. 728 E; 7. 792 D]. Meanness, unknown to the philosopher, 6. 486 A ; characteristic of the oligarchs, 8. 554 . Measurement, art of, corrects the illusions of sight, 10. 602 D . Meat, roast, the best diet for soldiers, 3. 404 D . Medicine , cause of, 3. 405 ; not intended to preserve unhealthy and intemperate subjects, ib. 406 foll., 408 A ; 4. 426 A [ cp. Tim. 89 B]; the two kinds of, 5. 459 [ cp. Laws 4. 720]; use of incantations in, 4. 426 A ; —analogy of, employed in the definition of justice, 1. 332 C . Megara, battle of, 2. 368 A . Melody, in education, 3. 398 foll.; its influence, 10. 601 B . Memory, the philosopher should have a good, 6. 486 D , 490 E , 494 A ; 7. 535 B . Mendicant prophets, 2. 364 C . Menelaus, treatment of, when wounded, 3. 408 A . Menoetius, father of Patroclus, 3. 388 C . Mental blindness, causes of, 7. 518 . Merchants, necessary in the state, 2. 371 . Metaphysics ; absolute ideas, 5. 476 ; —abstract and relative ideas, 7. 524 ; —analysis of knowledge, 6. 510 ; —qualifications of relative and correlative, 4. 437 foll.; 7. 524 . Cp. Idea , Logic . Metempsychosis, 10. 617 . Cp. Soul . Midas, wealth of, 3. 408 B . Might and right, 1. 338 foll. [ cp. Gorg. 483, 489; Laws 1. 627; 3. 690; 10. 890]. Miletus, Thales of, 10. 600 A . Military profession, the, 2. 374 . Mimetic art, in education, 3. 394 foll.; the same person cannot succeed in tragedy and comedy, ib. 395 A ; imitations lead to habit, ib. D ; men acting women’s part, ib. E ; influence on character, ibid. foll. Cp. Imitation . ‘Mine and thine,’ a common cause of dispute, 5. 462 . Ministers of the state must be educated, 7. 519 . See Ruler . Miser, the, typical of the oligarchical state, 8. 555 A (cp. 559 D ). Misfortune, to be borne with patience, 3. 387 ; 10. 603 –606. Models (or types), by which the poets are to be guided in their compositions, 2. 379 A . Moderation, necessity of, 5. 466 B [ cp. Laws 3. 690 E; 5. 732, 736 E]. Momus (god of jealousy), 6. 487 A . Monarchy, distinguished from aristocracy as that form of the perfect state in which one rules, 4. 445 C (cp. 9. 576 D , and Pol. 301); the happiest form of government, 9. 576 E (cp. 580 C , 587 B ). Money, needed in the state, 2. 371 B [ cp. Laws 11. 918]; not necessary in order to carry on war, 4. 423 ; —love of, among the Egyptians and Phoenicians, ib. 435 E ; characteristic of timocracy and oligarchy, 8. 548 A , 553 , 562 A ; referred to the appetitive element of the soul, 9. 580 E ; despicable, ib. 589 E , 590 C (cp. 3. 390 E ). Money-lending, in oligarchies, 8. 555 , 556 . Money-making, art of, in Cephalus’ family, 1. 330 B ; evil of, 8. 556 ; pleasure of, 9. 581 C , 586 E . Money-qualifications in oligarchies, 8. 550 , 551 . Moon, reputed mother of Orpheus, 2. 364 E . Motherland, a Cretan word, 9. 575 E [ cp. Menex. 237]. Mothers in the state, 5. 460 . Motion and rest, 4. 436 ; —motion of the stars, 7. 529 , 530 ; 10. 616 E . Multitude , the, the great Sophist, 6. 492 ; their madness, ib. 496 C . Cp. Many . Musaeus, his pictures of a future life, 2. 363 D , E, 364 E . Muses, the, Musaeus and Orpheus the children of, 2. 364 E . Music , to be taught before gymnastic, 2. 376 E (cp. 3. 403 C ); includes literature ( λόγοι ), 2. 376 E ; —in education, ib. 377 foll.; 3. 398 foll.; 7. 522 A ( see Poetry , Poets , and cp. Protag. 326; Laws 2. 654, 660); complexity in, to be rejected, 3. 397 [ cp. Laws 7. 812]; the severe and the vulgar kind, ibid. [ cp. Laws 7. 802]; the end of, the love of beauty, ib. 403 C ; like gymnastic, should be studied throughout life, ibid. ; the simpler kinds of, foster temperance in the soul, ib. 404 A , 410 A ; effect of excessive, ib. 410 , 411 ; ancient forms of, not to be altered, 4. 424 [ cp. Laws 2. 657; 7. 799, 801]; must be taught to women, 5. 452 . Music. [ Music to the ancients had a far wider significance than to us. It was opposed to gymnastic as ‘mental’ to ‘bodily’ training, and included equally reading and writing, mathematics, harmony, poetry, and music strictly speaking: drawing, as Aristotle tells us (Pol. viii. 3, § 1), was sometimes made a separate division. I. Music ( in this wider sense ), Plato says, should precede gymnastic; and, according to a remarkable passage in the Protagoras (325 C), the pupils in a Greek school were actually instructed in reading and writing, made to learn poetry by heart, and taught to play on the lyre, before they went to the gymnasium. The ages at which children should commence these various studies are not stated in the Republic; but in the VIIth Book of the Laws, where the subject is treated more in detail, the children begin going to school at ten, and spend three years in learning to read and write, and another three years in music (Laws 7. 810). This agrees very fairly with the selection of the most promising youth at the age of twenty (Rep. 7. 537 ), as it would allow a corresponding period of three years for gymnastic training. II. Music, strictly so called, plays a great part in Plato’s scheme of education. He hopes by its aid to make the lives of his youthful scholars harmonious and gracious, and to implant in their souls true conceptions of good and evil. Music is a gift of the Gods to men, and was never intended, ‘as the many foolishly and blasphemously suppose,’ merely to give us an idle pleasure (Tim. 47 E; Laws 2. 654, 658 E; 7. 802 D). Neither should a freeman aim at attaining perfect execution [ cp. Arist. Pol. viii. 6, §§ 7, 15]: in the Laws (7. 810) we are told that every one must go through the three years course of music, ‘neither more nor less, whether he like or whether he dislike the study.’ Both instruments and music are to be of a simple character: in the Republic only the lyre, the pipe, and the flute are tolerated, and the Dorian and Phrygian harmonies. No change in the fashions of music is permitted; for where there is licence in music there will be anarchy in the state. In this desire for simplicity and fixity in music Plato was probably opposed to the tendencies of his own age. The severe harmony which had once characterized Hellenic art was passing out of favour: alike in architecture, sculpture, painting, literature, and music, richer and more ornate styles prevailed. We regard the change as inevitable, and not perhaps wholly to be regretted: to Plato it was a cause rather than a sign of the decline of Hellas. ] Musical amateurs, 5. 475 ; —education, 2. 377 ; 3. 398 foll.; 7. 522 A ; —instruments, the more complex kinds of, rejected, 3. 399 [ cp. Laws 7. 812 D]; —modes, ib. 397 –399; changes in, involve changes in the laws, 4. 424 C . Mysteries, 2. 365 A , 366 A , 378 A ; 8. 560 E . Mythology, misrepresentations of the gods in, 2. 378 foll.; 3. 388 foll., 408 C (cp. Gods ); like poetry, has an imitative character, 3. 392 D foll. N. Narration, styles of, 3. 392 , 393 , 396 . National qualities, 4. 435 . Natural gifts, 2. 370 A ; 5. 455 ; 6. 491 E , 495 A ; 7. 519 , 535 . Nature, recurrent cycles in, 8. 546 A (cp. Cycles ); divisions of, 9. 584 [ cp. Phil. 23]. Necessities, the, of life, 2. 368 , 373 A . Necessity, the mother of the Fates, 10. 616 , 617 , 621 A . Necessity, the, ‘which lovers know,’ 5. 458 E ; —the ‘necessity of Diomede,’ 6. 493 D . Nemesis, 5. 451 A . Niceratus, son of Nicias, 1. 327 C . Nicias, 1. 327 C . Nightingale, Thamyras changed into a, 10. 620 . Niobe, sufferings of, in tragic poetry, 2. 380 A . νόμος , strain and law, 7. 532 E [ cp. Laws 7. 800 A]. Not-being, 5. 477 . Novelties in music and gymnastic to be discouraged, 4. 424 . Number, said to have been invented by Palamedes, 7. 522 D ; —the number of the State, 8. 546 . O. Objects and ideas to be distinguished, 5. 476 ; 6. 507 . Odysseus and Alcinous, 10. 614 B ; chooses the lot of a private man, ib. 620 D . Odyssey , 3. 393 A . Cp. Iliad . Office, not desired by the good ruler, 7. 520 A . Old age, complaints against, 1. 329 ; Sophocles quoted in regard to, ibid. ; wealth a comforter of age, ibid. ; —old men think more of the future life, ib. 330 ; not students, 7. 536 [ cp. Laches 189]; —the older to bear rule in the state, 3. 412 [ cp. Laws 3. 690 A; 4. 714 E]; to be over the younger, 5. 465 A [ cp. Laws 4. 721 D; 9. 879 C; 11. 917 A]. Oligarchy, a form of government which has many evils, 8. 544 , 551 , 552 ; origin of, ib. 550 ; nature of, ibid. ; always divided against itself, ib. 551 D , 554 E —the oligarchical man, 8. 553 ; a miser, ib. 555 ; his place in regard to pleasure, 9. 587 . Olympian Zeus, the Saviour, 9. 583 B . Olympic victors, happiness and glory of, 5. 465 D , 466 A ( cp. 10. 618 A ). One, the, study of, draws the mind to the contemplation of true being, 7. 525 A . Opinion and knowledge, 5. 476 –478; 6. 508 D , 510 A ; 7. 534 ; the lovers of opinion, 5. 479 , 480 ; a blind guide, 6. 506 ; objects of opinion and intellect classified, 7. 534 (cp. 5. 476 ); —true opinion and courage, 4. 429 , 430 (cp. Courage ). Opposites, qualification of, 4. 436 ; in nature, 5. 454 , 475 E . Cp. Contradiction . Oppositions in the soul, 10. 603 D . Orpheus, child of the Moon and the Muses, 2. 364 E ; soul of, chooses a swan’s life, 10. 620 A ; —quoted, 2. 364 E . P. Paeanian, Charmantides the, 1. 328 B . Pain, cessation of, causes pleasure, 9. 583 D [ cp. Phaedo 60 A; Phil. 51 A]; a motion of the soul, ib. E . Painters, 10. 596 , 597 ; are imitators, ib. 597 [ cp. Soph. 234]; painters and poets, ib. 597 , 603 , 605 : —‘the painter of constitutions,’ 6. 501 . Painting, in light and shade, 10. 602 C . Palamedes and Agamemnon in the play, 7. 522 D . Pamphylia, Ardiaeus a tyrant of some city in, 10. 615 C . Pandarus, author of the violation of the oaths, 2. 379 E ; wounded Menelaus, 3. 408 A . Panharmonic scale, the, 3. 399 . Panopeus, father of Epeus, 10. 620 B . Pantomimic representations, not to be allowed, 3. 397 . Paradox about justice and injustice, the, 1. 348 . Parental anxieties, 5. 465 C [ cp. Euthyd. 306 E]. Parents, the oldest and most indispensable of friends, 8. 574 C ; parents and children in the state, 5. 461 . Part and whole, in regard to the happiness of the state, 4. 420 D ; 5. 466 ; 7. 519 E ; in love, 5. 474 C , 475 B ; 6. 485 B . Passionate element of the soul, 4. 440 ; 6. 504 A ; 8. 548 D ; 9. 571 E , 580 A . See Spirit . Passions, the, tyranny of, 1. 329 C ; fostered by poetry, 10. 606 . Patient and agent equally qualified, 4. 436 [ cp. Gorg. 476; Phil. 27 A]. Patroclus, cruel vengeance taken by Achilles for, 3. 391 B ; his treatment of the wounded Eurypylus, ib. 406 A . Pattern, the heavenly, 6. 500 E ; 7. 540 A ; 9. 592 [ cp. Laws 5. 739 D]. Paupers. See Poor . Payment, art of, 1. 346 . Peirithous, son of Zeus, the tale of, not to be repeated, 3. 391 D . Peleus, the gentlest of men, 3. 391 C . Perception, in the eye and in the soul, 6. 508 foll. Perdiccas [King of Macedonia], 1. 336 A . Perfect state, difficulty of, 5. 472 ; 6. 502 E [ cp. Laws 4. 711]; possible, 5. 471 , 473 ; 6. 499 ; 7. 540 [ cp. Laws 5. 739]; manner of its decline, 8. 546 [ cp. Crit. 120]. Periander, the tyrant, 1. 336 A . Personalities, avoided by the philosopher, 6. 500 B [ cp. Theaet. 174 C]. Personification ; the argument compared to a search or chase, 2. 368 C ; 4. 427 C , 432 ; to a stormy sea, 4. 441 B ; to an ocean, 5. 453 D ; to a game of draughts, 6. 487 B ; to a journey, 7. 532 E ; to a charm, 10. 608 A ; —‘has travelled a long way,’ 6. 484 A ; —‘veils her face,’ ib. 503 A ; —‘following in the footsteps of the argument,’ 2. 365 C ; —‘whither the argument may blow, thither we go,’ 3. 394 D ; —‘a swarm of words,’ 5. 450 B ; —the three waves, ib. 457 C , 472 A , 473 C . Persuasion [or Faith], one of the faculties of the soul, 6. 511 D ; 7. 533 E . Philosopher , the, has the quality of gentleness, 2. 375 , 376 ; 3. 410 ; 6. 486 C ; ‘the spectator of all time and all existence,’ 6. 486 A [ cp. Theaet. 173 E]; should have a good memory, ib. D, 490 E , 494 A ; 7. 535 ; has his mind fixed upon true being, 6. 484 , 485 , 486 E , 490 , 500 C , 501 D ; 7. 521 , 537 D ; 9. 581 , 582 C (cp. 5. 475 E ; 7. 520 B , 525 , and Phaedo 82; Phaedr. 249; Theaet. 173 E; Soph. 249 D, 254); his qualifications and excellences, 6. 485 foll., 490 D , 491 B , 494 B [ cp. Phaedo 68]; corruption of the philosopher, ib. 491 foll.; is apt to retire from the world, ib. 496 [ cp. Theaet. 173]; does not delight in personal conversation, ib. 500 B [ cp. Theaet. 174 C]; must be an arithmetician, 7. 525 B ; pleasures of the philosopher, 9. 581 E : —Philosophers are to be kings, 5. 473 (cp. 6. 487 E , 498 foll., 501 E foll.; 7. 540 ; 8. 543 ; 9. 592 ); are lovers of all knowledge, 5. 475 ; 6. 486 A , 490 ; true and false, 5. 475 foll.; 6. 484 , 491 , 494 , 496 A , 500 ; 7. 535 ; to be guardians, 2. 375 ( see Guardians ); why they are useless, 6. 487 foll.; few in number, ib. E, 496 , 499 B , 503 B [ cp. Phaedo 69 C]; will frame the state after the heavenly pattern, ib. 501 ; 7. 540 A ; 9. 592 ; education of, 6. 503 ; philosophers and poets, 10. 607 [ cp. Laws 12. 967]. Philosophic nature, the, rarity of, 6. 491 ; causes of the ruin of, ibid. Philosophy, every headache ascribed to, 3. 407 C ; = love of real knowledge, 6. 485 (cp. supra 5. 475 E ); the corruption of, 6. 491 ; philosophy and the world, ib. 494 ; the desolation of, ib. 495 ; philosophy and the arts, ib. E, 496 C (cp. supra 5. 475 D , 476 A ); true and false philosophy, 6. 496 E , 498 E ; philosophy and governments, ib. 497 ; time set apart for, ib. 498 ; 7. 539 ; commonly neglected in after life, 6. 498 ; prejudice against, ib. 500 , 501 ; why it is useless, 7. 517 , 535 , 539 ; the guardian and saviour of virtue, 8. 549 B ; philosophy and poetry, 10. 607 ; aids a man to make a wise choice in the next world, ib. 618 . Phocylides, his saying, ‘that as soon as a man has a livelihood he should practise virtue,’ 3. 407 B . Phoenician tale, the, 3. 414 C foll. Phoenicians, their love of money, 4. 436 A . Phoenix, tutor of Achilles, 3. 390 E . Phrygian harmony, the, 3. 399 . Physician , the, not a mere money maker, 1. 341 C , 342 D ; the good physician, 3. 408 ; physicians find employment when luxury increases, 2. 373 C ; 3. 405 A . Cp. Medicine . Pigs, sacrificed at the Mysteries, 2. 378 A . Pilot, the, and the just man, 1. 332 (cp. 341 ); the true pilot, 6. 488 E . Pindar, on the hope of the righteous, 1. 331 A ; on Asclepius, 3. 408 B ; —quoted, 2. 365 B . Pipe, the, ( σύριγξ ), one of the musical instruments permitted to be used, 3. 399 D . Piraeus, 1. 327 A ; 4. 439 E ; Socrates seldom goes there, 1. 328 C . Pittacus of Mitylene, a sage, 1. 335 E . Plays of children should be made a means of instruction, 4. 425 A ; 7. 537 A [ cp. Laws 1. 643 B]. Pleasure , not akin to virtue, 3. 402 , 403 ; pleasure and love, ibid. ; defined as knowledge or good, 6. 505 B , 509 B ; the highest, 9. 583 ; caused by the cessation of pain, ib. D [ cp. Phaedo 60 A; Phil. 51]; a motion of the soul, ib. E ; —real pleasure unknown to the tyrant, ib. 587 ; —pleasure of learning, 6. 486 C (cp. 9. 581 , 586 , and Laws 2. 667); —sensual pleasure, 7. 519 ; 9. 586 ; a solvent of the soul, 4. 430 A [ cp. Laws 1. 633 E]; not desired by the philosopher, 6. 485 E : —Pleasures, division of, into necessary and unnecessary, 8. 558 , 559 , 561 A ; 9. 572 , 581 E ; honourable and dishonourable, 8. 561 C ; three classes of, 9. 581 ; criterion of, ib. 582 ; classification of, ib. 583 ; —pleasures of smell, ib. 584 B ; —pleasures of the many, 585 ; of the passionate, ib. 586 ; of the philosopher, ib. 586 , 587 . Pluto, 8. 554 B . Poetry , styles of, 3. 392 –394, 398 ; in the state, ib. 392 –394, 398 ; 8. 568 B ; 10. 595 foll., 605 A , 607 A [ cp. Laws 7. 817]; effect of, 10. 605 ; feeds the passions, ib. 606 ; poetry and philosophy, ib. 607 [ cp. Laws 12. 967]: —‘colours’ of poetry, ib. 601 A . Poetry. [ The Republic is the first of Plato’s works in which he seriously examines the value of poetry in education, and the place of the poets in the state. The question could hardly be neglected by the philosopher who proposed to construct an ideal polity or government of the best. For poetry played a great part in Hellenic life: the children learned whole poems by heart in their schools (Protag. 326 A; Laws 7. 810 C); the rhapsode delighted the crowds at the festivals (Ion 535); the theatres were free, or almost free, to all, ‘costing but a drachma at the most’ (Apol. 26 D); the intervals of a banquet were filled up by conversation about the poets (Protag. 347 C ). The quarrel between philosophy and poetry was an ancient one, which had found its first expression in the attacks of Xenophanes (538 B.C. ) and Heracleitus (508 B.C. ) upon the popular mythology. In the earlier dialogues of Plato the poets are treated with an ironical courtesy, through which an antagonistic spirit is allowed here and there to appear: they are ‘winged and holy beings’ (Ion 534) who sing by inspiration, but at the same time are the worst possible critics of their own writings and the most self-conceited of mortals (Apol. 22 D). In the Republic ( II and III ), Plato begins the trial of poetry by the enquiry whether the tales and legends related by the epic and tragic poets are true in themselves or likely to furnish good examples to his future citizens. They cannot be true, for they are contrary to the nature of God ( see s. v. God ), and they are certainly not proper lessons for youth. There must be a censorship of poetry, and all objectionable passages expunged; suitable rules and regulations will be laid down, and to these the poets must conform. In the Xth Book the argument takes a deeper tone. The Poet is proved to be an impostor thrice removed from the truth, a wizard who steals the hearts of the unwary by his spells and enchantments. Men easily fall into the habit of imitating what they admire; and the lamentations and woes of the tragic hero and the unseemly buffoonery of the comedian are equally bad models for the citizens of a free and noble state. The poets must therefore be banished, unless, Plato adds, the lovers of poetry can persuade us of her innocence of the charges laid against her. In the Laws a similar conclusion is reached:—‘The state is an imitation of the best life, and the noblest form of tragedy. The legislator and the poet are rivals, and the latter can only be tolerated if his words are in harmony with the laws of the state’ (vii. 817)]. Poets , the, love their poems as their own creation, 1. 330 C [ cp. Symp. 209]; speak in parables, ib. 332 B (cp. 3. 413 B ); on justice, 2. 363 , 364 , 365 E ; bad teachers of youth, ib. 377 ; 3. 391 , 392 , 408 C [ cp. Laws 10. 866 C, 890 A]; must be restrained by certain rules, 2. 379 foll.; 3. 398 A [ cp. Laws 2. 656, 660 A; 4. 719]; banished from the state, 3. 398 A ; 8. 568 B ; 10. 595 foll., 605 A , 607 A [ cp. Laws 7. 817]; poets and tyrants, 8. 568 ; thrice removed from the truth, 10. 596 , 597 , 598 E , 602 B , 605 C ; imitators only, ib. 600 , 601 (cp. 3. 393 , and Laws 4. 719 C); poets and painters, 10. 601 , 603 , 605 ; —‘the poets who were children and prophets of the gods’ (? Orpheus and Musaeus; cp. supra 364 E ), 2. 366 A . Polemarchus, the son of Cephalus, 1. 327 B ; ‘the heir of the argument,’ ib. 331 ; intervenes in the discussion, ib. 340 ; wishes Socrates to speak in detail about the community of women and children, 5. 449 . Politicians, in democracies, 8. 564 . Polydamas, the pancratiast, 1. 338 C . Poor , the, have no time to be ill, 3. 406 E ; everywhere hostile to the rich, 4. 423 A ; 8. 551 E [ cp. Laws 5. 736 A]; very numerous in oligarchies, 8. 552 D ; not despised by the rich in time of danger, ib. 556 C . Population, to be regulated, 5. 460 . Poverty, prejudicial to the arts, 4. 421 ; poverty and crime, 8. 552 . Power, the struggle for, 7. 520 C [ cp. Laws 4. 715 A]. Pramnian wine, 3. 405 E , 408 A . Priam, Homer’s delineation of, condemned, 3. 388 B . Prisoners in war, 5. 468 –470. Private property, not allowed to the guardians, 3. 416 E ; 4. 420 A , 422 D ; 5. 464 C ; 8. 543 . Prizes of valour, 5. 468 . Prodicus, a popular teacher, 10. 600 C . Property, to be common, 3. 416 E ; 4. 420 A , 422 D ; 5. 464 C ; 8. 543 ; restrictions on the disposition of, 8. 556 A [ cp. Laws 11. 923]: —property qualifications in oligarchies, ib. 550 , 551 . Prophets, mendicant, 2. 364 C . Proportion, akin to truth, 6. 486 E . Prose writers on justice, 2. 364 A . Protagoras, his popularity as a teacher, 10. 600 C . Proteus, not to be slandered, 2. 381 D . Proverbs: ‘birds of a feather,’ 1. 329 A ; ‘shave a lion,’ ib. 341 C ; ‘let brother help brother,’ 2. 362 D ; ‘wolf and flock,’ 3. 415 D ; ‘one great thing,’4. 423 E ; ‘hard is the good,’ ib. 435 C ; ‘friends have all things in common,’ 5. 449 C ; ‘the useful is the noble,’ ib. 457 B ; ‘the wise must go to the doors of the rich,’ 6. 489 B (cp. 2. 364 B ); ‘what is more than human,’ 6. 492 E ; ‘the necessity of Diomede,’ ib. 493 D ; ‘the she-dog as good as her mistress,’ 8. 563 D ; ‘out of the smoke into the fire,’ ib. 569 B ; ‘does not come within a thousand miles’ ( οὐδ’ ἴκταρ βάλλει ), 9. 575 D . Public, the, the great Sophist, 6. 492 ; compared to a many-headed beast, ib. 493 ; cannot be philosophic, ib. 494 A [ cp. Pol. 292 D]. See Many , Multitude . Punishment, of the wicked, in the world below, 2. 363 ; 10. 614 . Cp. Hades , World below . Purgation of the luxurious state, 3. 399 E ; —of the city by the tyrant, 8. 567 D ; —of the soul, by the tyrannical man, ib. 573 A . Pythagoreans, the, authorities on the science of harmony, 7. 529 , 530 , 531 ; never reach the natural harmonies of number, ib. 531 C ; —the Pythagorean way of life, 10. 600 A . Pythian Oracle, the, 5. 461 E ; 7. 540 C . Q. Quacks, 5. 459 . Quarrels, dishonourable, 2. 378 ; 3. 395 E ; will be unknown in the best state, 2. 378 B ; 5. 464 E [ cp. Laws 5. 739]; —quarrels of the Gods and heroes, 2. 378 . R. Rational element of the soul, 4. 435 –442; 6. 504 A ; 8. 550 A ; 9. 571 , 580 E , 581 [ cp. Tim. 69 E–72]; ought to bear rule, and be assisted by the spirited element against the passions, 4. 441 E , 442 ; characterized by the love of knowledge, 9. 581 B ; the pleasures of, the truest, ib. 582 ; preserves the mind from the illusions of sense, 10. 602 . Rationalism among youth, 7. 538 [ cp. Laws 10. 886]. Reaction, 8. 564 A . Read, learning to, 3. 402 A . Reason, a faculty of the soul, 6. 511 D (cp. 7. 533 E ); reason and appetite, 9. 571 (cp. 4. 439 –442, and Tim. 69 E foll.); reason should be the guide of pleasure, 9. 585 –587. Reflections, 6. 510 A . Relations, slights inflicted by, in old age, 1. 329 . Relative and correlative, qualifications of, 4. 437 foll. [ cp. Gorg. 476]; how corrected, 7. 524 . Relativity of things and individuals, 5. 479 ; fallacies caused by, 9. 584 , 585 ; 10. 602 , 605 C . Religion, matters of, left to the god at Delphi, 4. 427 A (cp. 5. 461 E , 469 A ; 7. 540 B ). Residues, method of, 4. 427 E . Rest and motion, 4. 436 . Retail traders, necessary in the state, 2. 371 [ cp. Laws 11. 918]. Reverence in the young, 5. 465 A [ cp. Laws 5, 729; 9. 879; 11. 917 A]. Rhetoric, professors of, 2. 365 D . Rhythm, 3. 400 ; goes with the subject, ib. 398 D , 400 B ; its persuasive influence, ib. 401 E ; 10. 601 B . Riches. See Wealth . Riddle, the, of the eunuch and the bat, 5. 479 C . Ridicule, only to be directed against folly and vice, 5. 452 E ; danger of unrestrained ridicule, 10. 606 C [ cp. Laws 11. 935 A]. Riding, the children of the guardians to be taught, 5. 467 ; 7. 537 A [ cp. Laws 7. 794 D]. Right and might, 1. 338 foll. Ruler , the, in the strict and in the popular sense, 1. 341 B ; the true ruler does not ask, but claim obedience, 6. 489 C [ cp. Pol. 300, 301]; the ideal ruler, ib. 502 : —Rulers of states; do they study their own interests? 1. 338 D , 343 , 346 (cp. 7. 520 C ); are not infallible, 1. 339 ; how they are paid, ib. 347 ; good men do not desire office, ibid. ; 7. 520 D ; why they become rulers, 1. 347 ; present rulers dishonest, 6. 496 D : —[in the best state] must be tested by pleasures and pains, 3. 413 (cp. 6. 503 A ; 7. 539 E ); have the sole privilege of lying, 2. 382 ; 3. 389 A , 414 C ; 5. 459 D [ cp. Laws 2. 663]; must be taken from the older citizens, 3. 412 (cp. 6. 498 C ); will be called friends and saviours, 5. 463 ; 6. 502 E ; must be philosophers, 2. 376 ; 5. 473 ; 6. 484 , 497 foll., 501 , 503 B ; 7. 520 , 521 , 525 B , 540 ; 8. 543 ; the qualities which must be found in them, 6. 503 A ; 7. 535 ; must attain to the knowledge of the good, 6, 506 ; 7. 519 ; will accept office as a necessity, 7. 520 E , 540 A ; will be selected at twenty, and again at thirty, from the guardians, ib. 537 ; must learn arithmetic, ib. 522 –526; geometry, ib. 526 , 527 ; astronomy, ib. 527 –530; harmony, ib. 531 ; at thirty must be initiated into philosophy, ib. 537 –539; at thirty-five must enter on active life, ib. 539 E ; after fifty may return to philosophy, ib. 540 ; when they die, will be buried by the state and paid divine honours, 3. 414 A ; 5. 465 E , 469 A ; 7. 540 B . Cp. Guardians . S. Sacrifices, private, 1. 328 B , 331 D ; —in atonement, 2. 364 ; —human, in Arcadia, 8. 565 D . Sailors, necessary in the state, 2. 371 B . Sarpedon, 3. 388 C . Sauces, not mentioned in Homer, 3. 404 D . Scamander, beleaguered by Achilles, 3. 391 B . Scepticism, danger of, 7. 538 , 539 . Science ( ἐπιστήμη ), a division of the intellectual world, 7. 533 E (cp. 6. 511 ); —the sciences distinguished by their object, 4. 438 [ cp. Charm. 171]; not to be studied with a view to utility only, 7. 527 A , 529 , 530 ; their unity, ib. 531 ; use hypotheses, ib. 533 ; correlation of, ib. 537 . Sculpture, must only express the image of the good, 3. 401 B ; painting of, 4. 420 D [ cp. Laws 2. 668 E]. Scylla, 9. 588 C . Scythian, Anacharsis the, 10. 600 A ; —Scythians, the, characterized by spirit or passion, 4. 435 E . Self-indulgence in men and states, 4. 425 E , 426 ; —self-interest the natural guide of men, 2. 359 B ; —self-made men bad company, 1. 330 C ; —self-mastery, 4. 430 , 431 . Sense, objects of, twofold, 7. 523 ; knowledge given by, imperfect, ibid. ; 10. 602 ; sense and intellect, 7. 524 : —Senses, the, classed among faculties, 5. 477 C . Seriphian, story of Themistocles and the, 1. 329 E . Servants, old family, 8. 549 E . Sex in the world below, 10. 618 B ; —sexes to follow the same training, 5. 451 , 466 [ cp. Laws 7. 805]; equality of, advantageous, ib. 456 , 457 ; relation between, ib. 458 foll. [ cp. Laws 8. 835 E]; freedom of intercourse between, in a democracy, 8. 563 B . Cp. Women . Sexual desires, 5. 458 E [ cp. Laws 6. 783 A; 8. 835 E]. Shadows, 6. 510 A ; —knowledge of shadows ( εἰκασία ), one of the faculties of the soul, 6. 511 E ; 7. 533 E . Shepherd, the analogy of, with the ruler, 1. 343 , 345 [ cp. Pol. 275]. Shopkeepers, necessary in the state, 2. 371 [ cp. Laws 11. 918]. Short sight, 2. 368 D . Sicily, ‘can tell of Charondas,’ 10. 599 E ; —Sicilian cookery, 3. 404 D . Sight , placed in the class of faculties, 5. 477 C ; requires in addition to vision and colour, a third element, light, 6. 507 ; the most wonderful of the senses, ibid. ; compared to mind, ib. 508 ; 7. 532 A ; illusions of, 7. 523 ; 10. 602 , 603 D : —the world of sight, 7. 517 . Sign, the, of Socrates, 6. 496 C . Silver, mingled by the God in the auxiliaries, 3. 415 A (cp. 416 E ; 8. 547 A ); —[and gold] not allowed to the guardians, 3. 416 E ; 4. 419 , 422 D ; 5. 464 D (cp. 8. 543 ). Simonides, his definition of justice discussed, 1. 331 D –335 E; a sage, ib. 335 E . Simplicity, the first principle of education, 3. 397 foll., 400 E , 404 ; the two kinds of, ib. 400 E ; of the good man, ib. 409 A ; in diet, 8. 559 C (cp. 3. 404 D ). Sin, punishment of, 2. 363 ; 10. 614 foll. Cp. Hades , World below . Sirens, harmony of the, 10. 617 B . Skilled person, the, cannot err (Thrasymachus), 1. 340 D . Slavery, more to be feared than death, 3. 387 A ; of Hellenes condemned, 5. 469 B . Slaves, the uneducated man harsh towards, 8. 549 A ; enjoy great freedom in a democracy, ib. 563 B ; always inclined to rise against their masters, 9. 578 [ cp. Laws 6. 776, 777]. Smallness and greatness, 4. 438 B ; 5. 479 B ; 7. 523 , 524 ; 9. 575 C ; 10. 602 D , 605 C . Smell, pleasures of, 9. 584 B . Snake-charming, 1. 358 B . Socrates, goes down to the Peiraeus to see the feast of Bendis, 1. 327 ; detained by Polemarchus and Glaucon, ibid. ; converses with Cephalus, ib. 328 –332; trembles before Thrasymachus, ib. 336 D ; his irony, ib. 337 A ; his poverty, ib. D ; a sharper in argument, ib. 340 D ; ignorant of what justice is, ib. 354 C ; his powers of fascination, 2. 358 A ; requested by Glaucon and Adeimantus to praise justice per se , ib. 367 B ; cannot refuse to help justice, ib. 368 C ; 4. 427 D ; his oath ‘by the dog,’ 3. 399 E ; 8. 567 E ; 9. 592 A ; hoped to have evaded discussing the subject of women and children, 5. 449 , 472 , 473 (cp. 6. 502 E ); his love of truth, 5. 451 A ; 6. 504 ; his power in argument, 6. 487 B ; not unaccustomed to speak in parables, ib. E ; his sign, ib. 496 C ; his earnestness in behalf of philosophy, 7. 536 B ; his reverence for Homer, 10. 595 C , 607 (cp. 3. 391 A ). Soldiers, must form a separate class, 2. 374 ; the diet suited for, 3. 404 D (cp. Guardians ); —women to be soldiers, 5. 452 , 466 , 471 E ; —punishment of soldiers for cowardice, ib. 468 A . Cp. Warrior . Solon, famous at Athens, 10. 599 E ; —quoted, 7. 536 D . Son, the supposititious, parable of, 7. 537 E . Song, parts of, 3. 398 D . Sophists, the, their view of justice, 1. 338 foll.; verbal quibbles of, ib. 340 ; the public the great Sophist, 6. 492 ; the Sophists compared to feeders of a beast, ib. 493 . Sophocles, a remark of, quoted, 1. 329 B . Sorrow , not to be indulged, 3. 387 ; 10. 603 –606; has a relaxing effect on the soul, 4. 430 A ; 10. 606 . Soul , the, has ends and excellences, 1. 353 D ; beauty in the soul, 3. 401 ; the fair soul in the fair body, ib. 402 D ; sympathy of soul and body, 5. 462 D , 464 B ; conversion of the soul from darkness to light, 7. 518 , 521 , 525 [ cp. Laws 12. 957 E]; requires the aid of calculation and intelligence in order to interpret the intimations of sense, ib. 523 , 524 ; 10. 602 ; has more truth and essence than the body, 9. 585 D ; —better and worse principles in the soul, 4. 431 ; the soul divided into reason, spirit, appetite, ib. 435 –442; 6. 504 A ; 8. 550 A ; 9. 571 , 580 E , 581 [ cp. Tim. 69 E–72, 89 E; Laws 9. 863]; faculties of the soul, 6. 511 E ; 7. 533 E ; oppositions in the soul, 10. 603 D [ cp. Soph. 228 A; Laws 10. 896 D]; —the lame soul, 3. 401 ; 7. 535 [ cp. Tim. 44; Soph. 228]; —the soul marred by meanness, 6. 495 E [ cp. Gorg. 524 E ]; —immortality of the soul, 10. 608 foll., (cp. 6. 498 C ); —number of souls does not increase, 10. 611 A ; —the soul after death, ib. 614 foll.; —transmigration of souls, ib. 617 [ cp. Phaedr. 249; Tim. 90 E foll.]; —the soul impure and disfigured while in the body, ib. 611 [ cp. Phaedo 81]; —compared to a many-headed monster, 9. 588 ; to the images of the sea-god Glaucus, 10. 611 ; —like the eye, 6. 508 ; 7. 518 ; —harmony of the soul, produced by temperance, 4. 430 , 442 , 443 (cp. 9. 591 D , and Laws 2. 653 B); —eye of the soul, 7. 518 D , 527 E , 533 D , 540 A ; —five forms of the state and soul, 4. 445 ; 5. 449 ; 9. 577 . Soul. [ The psychology of the Republic, while agreeing generally with that of the other Dialogues, is in some respects a modification or developement of their conclusions. —The division of the soul into three elements, reason, spirit, appetite, here first assumes a precise form, and henceforward has a permanent place in the language of philosophy ( cp. Introd. p. lxvii ). On this division the distinction between forms of government is based ( see s. v. Government ). Virtue, again, is the harmony or accord of the different elements, when the dictates of reason are enforced by passion against the appetites, while vice is the anarchy or discord of the soul when passion and appetite join in rebellion against reason ( cp. 4. 444 ; 10. 609 foll.; Soph. 228; Pol. 296 D; Laws 10. 906 C]. — Regarded from the intellectual side the soul is analysed into four faculties, reason, understanding, faith, knowledge of shadows. These severally correspond to the four divisions of knowledge (6. 511 E ), two for intellect and two for opinion; and thus arises the Platonic ‘proportion,’ — being : becoming :: intellect : opinion, and science : belief :: understanding : knowledge of shadows. These divisions are partly real, partly formed by a logical process, which, as in so many distinctions of ancient philosophers, has outrun fact, and are further illustrated and explained by the allegory of the cave in Book VII ( see Introduction, p. xciv ). — The pre-existence and the immortality of the soul are assumed. The doctrine of ἀνάμνησις or ‘remembrance of a previous birth’ is not so much dwelt upon as in the Meno, Phaedo, or Phaedrus, neither is it made a proof of immortality (Meno 86; Phaedo 73). It is apparently alluded to in the story of Er, where we are told that ‘the pilgrims drank the waters of Unmindfulness; the foolish took too deep a draught, but the wise were more moderate’ (10. 621 A ). In the Xth Book Glaucon is supposed to receive with amazement Socrates’ confident assertion of immortality, although a previous allusion to another state of existence has passed unheeded (6. 498 D ); and in earlier parts of the discussion ( e.g. 2. 362 ; 3. 386 ), the censure which is passed on the common representations of Hades implies in itself some belief in a future life [ cp. Introduction to Phaedo, Vol. I]. The argument for the immortality of the soul is not drawn out at great length or with the emphasis of the Phaedo. It is chiefly of a verbal character:—All things which perish are destroyed by some inherent evil; but the soul is not destroyed by sin, which is the evil proper to her, and must therefore be immortal ( cp. Introd. p. clxvi ). — The condition of the soul after death is represented by Plato in his favourite form of a myth [ cp. Meno 81; Phaedo 88; Gorg. 522]. The Pamphylian warrior Er, who is supposed to have died in battle, revives when placed on the funeral pyre and relates his experiences in the other world. He tells how the just are rewarded and the wicked punished, and is privileged to describe the spectacle which he had witnessed of the choice of a new life by the pilgrim souls. The reward of release from bodily existence is not held out to the philosopher (Phaedo 114 C), but his wisdom, which has a deeper root than habit (10. 619 ), preserves him from overhaste in his choice and ensures him a happy destiny. —The transmigration of souls is represented in the myth much as in the Phaedrus and Timaeus. Plato in all likelihood derived the doctrine from an Oriental source, but through Pythagorean channels. It probably had a real hold on his mind, as it agreed, or could be made to agree, with the conviction, which he elsewhere expresses, of the remedial nature of punishment [ cp. Protag. 323; Gorg. 523–525]. Sounds in music, 7. 531 A . Sparta. See Lacedaemon . Spectator , the, unconsciously influenced by what he sees and hears, 10. 605 , 606 [ cp. Laws 2. 656 A, 659 C]; —the philosopher the spectator of all time and all existence, 6. 486 A [ cp. Theaet. 173 E]. Spendthrifts, in Greek states, 8. 564 . Spercheius, the river-god, 3. 391 B . Spirit , must be combined with gentleness in the guardians, 2. 375 ; 3. 410 ; 6. 503 [ cp. Laws 5. 731 B]; characteristic of northern nations, 4. 435 E ; found in quite young children, ib. 441 A [ cp. Laws; 12. 963]: —the spirited (or passionate) element in the soul, ib. 440 foll.; 6. 504 A ; 8. 550 A ; 9. 572 A , 580 E ; must be subject to the rational part, 4. 441 E [ cp. Tim. 30 C, 70, 89 D]; predominant in the timocratic state and man, 8. 548 , 550 B ; characterised by ambition, 9. 581 B ; its pleasures, ib. 586 D ; the favourite object of the poet’s imitation, 10. 604 , 605 . Stars, motion of the, 7. 529 , 530 ; 10. 616 E . State , relation of, to the individual, 2. 368 ; 4. 434 , 441 ; 5. 462 ; 8. 544 ; 9. 577 B [ cp. Laws 3. 689; 5. 739; 9. 875, 877 C; 11. 923]; origin of, 2. 369 foll. [ cp. Laws 3. 678 foll.]; should be in unity, 4. 422 ; 5. 463 [ cp. Laws 5. 739]; place of the virtues in, 4. 428 foll.; virtue of state and individual, ib. 441 ; 6. 498 E ; family life in, 5. 449 [ cp. Laws 5. 740]: —the luxurious state, 2. 372 D foll.: —[the best state]; classes must be kept distinct, ib. 374 ; 3. 379 E , 415 A ; 4. 421 , 433 A , 434 , 441 E , 443 ; 5. 453 (cp. 8. 552 A , and Laws 8. 846 E); the rulers must be philosophers, 2. 376 ; 5. 473 ; 6. 484 , 497 foll., 501 , 503 B ; 7. 520 , 521 , 525 B , 540 ; 8. 543 (cp. Rulers ); the government must have the monopoly of lying, 2. 382 ; 3. 389 A , 414 C ; 5. 459 D [ cp. Laws 2. 663 E]; the poets to be banished, 3. 398 A ; 8. 568 B ; 10. 595 foll., 605 A , 607 A [ cp. Laws 7. 817]; the older must bear rule, the younger obey, 3. 412 [ cp. Laws 3. 690 A; 4. 714 E]; women, children, and goods to be common, ib. 416 ; 5. 450 E , 457 foll., 462 , 464 ; 8. 543 A [ cp. Laws 5. 739; 7. 807 B]; must be happy as a whole, 4. 420 D ; 5. 466 A ; 7. 519 E ; will easily master other states in war, 4. 422 ; must be of a size which is not inconsistent with unity, ib. 423 [ cp. Laws 5. 737]; composed of three classes, traders, auxiliaries, counsellors, ib. 441 A ; may be either a monarchy or an aristocracy, ib. 445 C (cp. 9. 576 D ); will form one family, 5. 463 [ cp. Pol. 259]; will be free from quarrels and law-suits, 2. 378 ; 5. 464 , 465 ; —is it possible? 5. 471 , 473 ; 6. 499 ; 7. 540 [ cp. 7. 520 and Laws 4. 711 E; 5. 739]; framed after the heavenly pattern, 6. 500 E ; 7. 540 A ; 9. 592 ; how to be commenced, 6. 501 ; 7. 540 ; manner of its decline, 8. 546 [ cp. Crit. 120]; —the best state that in which the rulers least desire office, 7. 520 , 521 : —the four imperfect forms of states, 4. 445 B ; 8. 544 [ cp. Pol. 291 foll., 391 foll.]; succession of states, 8. 545 foll. (cp. Government , forms of): —existing states not one but many, 4. 423 A ; nearly all corrupt, 6. 496 ; 7. 519 , 520 ; 9. 592 . State. [ The polity of which Plato ‘sketches the outline’ in the Republic may be analysed into two principal elements, I, an Hellenic state of the older or Spartan type, with some traits borrowed from Athens, II, an ideal city in which the citizens have all things in common, and the government is carried on by a class of philosopher rulers who are selected by merit. These two elements are not perfectly combined; and, as Aristotle complains (Pol. ii. 5, § 18), very much is left ill-defined and uncertain. —I. Like Hellenic cities in general, the number of the citizens is not to be great. The size of the state is limited by the requirement that ‘it shall not be larger or smaller than is consistent with unity.’ [ The ‘convenient number’ 5040, which is suggested in the Laws (v. 737), is regarded by Aristotle (Pol. ii. 6, § 6) as an ‘enormous multitude.’ ] Again, the individual is subordinate to the state. When Adeimantus complains of the hard life which the citizens will lead, ‘like mercenaries in a garrison’ (4. 419 ), he is answered by Socrates that if the happiness of the whole is secured, the happiness of the parts will inevitably follow. Once more, war is supposed to be the normal condition of the state, and military service is imposed upon all. The profession of arms is the only one in which the citizen may properly engage. Trade is regarded as dishonourable:—‘those who are good for nothing else sit in the Agora buying and selling’ (2. 371 D ); the warrior can spare no time for such an employment ( ib. 374 C ). [ In the Laws Plato’s ideas enlarge; he thinks that peace is to be preferred to war (1. 628); and he speculates on the possibility of redeeming trade from reproach by compelling some of the best citizens to open a shop or keep a tavern (11. 918).]— In these respects, as well as in the introduction of common meals, Plato was probably influenced by the traditional ideal of Sparta [ cp. Introd. p. clxx ]. The Athenian element appears in the intellectual training of the citizens, and generally in the atmosphere of grace and refinement which they are to breathe ( see s. v. Art ). The restless energy of the Athenian character is perhaps reflected in the discipline imposed upon the ruling class (7. 540 ), who when they have reached fifty are dispensed from continuous public service, but must then devote themselves to abstract study, and also be willing to take their turn when necessary at the helm of state [ cp. Laws 7. 807; Thucyd. i. 70; ii. 40]. —II. The most peculiar features of Plato’s state are (1) the community of property, (2) the position of women, (3) the government of philosophers. (1) The first ( see s. v. ), though suggested in some measure by the example of Sparta or Crete [ cp. Arist. Pol. ii. 5, § 6], is not known to have been actually practised anywhere in Hellas, unless possibly among such a body as the Pythagorean brotherhood. (2) Nothing in all the Republic was probably stranger to his contemporaries than the place which Plato assigns to women in the state. The community of wives and children, though carefully guarded by him from the charge of licentiousness (5. 458 E ), would appear worse in Athenian eyes than the traditional ‘licence’ of the Spartan women [Arist. Pol. ii. 9, § 5), which, so far as it really existed, no doubt arose out of an excessive regard to physical considerations in marriage. Again, the equal share in education, in war, and in administration which the women are supposed to enjoy in Plato’s state, was, if not so revolting, quite as contrary to common Hellenic sentiment [ cp. Thucyd. ii. 45]. The Spartan women exercised a great influence on public affairs, but this was mainly indirect [ cp. Laws 7. 806; Arist. Pol. ii. 9, § 8]; they did not hold office or learn the use of arms. At Athens, as is well known, the women, of the upper classes at least, lived in an almost Oriental seclusion, and were wholly absorbed in household duties (Laws 7. 805 E). (3) Finally, the government of philosophers had no analogy in the Hellenic world of Plato’s time. He may have taken the suggestion from the stories of the Pythagorean rule in Magna Graecia. But it is also possible that these accounts of the brotherhood of Pythagoras, some of which have reached us on very doubtful authority, may be themselves to a considerable extent coloured and distorted by features adapted from the Republic. Whether this is the case or not, we can hardly doubt that Plato was chiefly indebted to his own imagination for his kingdom of philosophers, or that it remained to himself an ideal, rather than a state which would ever ‘play her part in actual life’ (Tim. 19, 20). It is at least significant that he never finished the Critias, as though he were unable to embody, even in a mythical form, the ‘city of which the pattern is laid up in heaven.’ ] Statesmen in their own imagination, 4. 426 . Statues, polished for a decision, 2. 361 D ; painted, 4. 420 D . Steadiness of character, apt to be accompanied by stupidity, 6. 503 [ cp. Theaet. 144 B]. Stesichorus, says that Helen was never at Troy, 9. 586 C . Stories, improper, not to be told to children, 2. 377 ; 3. 391 . Cp. Children , Education . Strength, rule of, 1. 338 . Style of poetry, 3. 392 ; —styles, various, ib. 397 . Styx, 3. 387 B . Suits, will be unknown in the best state, 5. 464 E . Sumptuary laws, 4. 423 , 425 . Sun, the, compared with the idea of good, 6. 508 ; not sight, but the author of sight, ib. 509 ; —‘the sun of Heracleitus,’ ib. 498 A . Supposititious son, parable of the, 7. 538 . Sympathy, of soul and body, 5. 462 D , 464 B ; aroused by poetry, 10. 605 B . Syracusan dinners, 3. 404 D . T. Tactics, use of arithmetic in, 7. 522 E , 525 B . Tartarus ( = hell), 10. 616 A . Taste, good, importance of, 3. 401 , 402 . Taxes, heavy, imposed by the tyrant, 8. 567 A , 568 E . Teiresias, alone has understanding among the dead, 3. 386 E . Telamon, 10. 620 B . Temperance ( σωφροσύνη ), in the state, 3. 389 ; 4. 430 foll. [ cp. Laws 3. 696]; temperance and love, 3. 403 A ; fostered in the soul by the simple kind of music, ib. 404 E , 410 A ; a harmony of the soul, 4. 430 , 441 E , 442 D , 443 (cp. 9. 591 D , and Laws 2. 653 B); one of the philosopher’s virtues, 6. 485 E , 490 E , 491 B , 494 B [ cp. Phaedo 68]. Temple-robbing, 9. 574 D , 575 B . Territory, devastation of Hellenic, not to be allowed, 5. 470 ; —unlimited, not required by the good state, 4. 423 [ cp. Laws 5. 737]. Thales, inventions of, 10. 600 A . Thamyras, soul of, chooses the life of a nightingale, 10. 620 A . Theages, the bridle of, 6. 496 B . Themis, did not instigate the strife with the gods, 2. 379 E . Themistocles, answer of, to the Seriphian, 1. 330 A . Theology of Plato, 2. 379 foll. Cp. God . Thersites, puts on the form of a monkey, 10. 620 C . Theseus, the tale of, and Peirithous not permitted, 3. 391 C . Thetis, not to be slandered, 2. 381 D ; her accusation of Apollo, ib. 383 A . Thirst, 4. 437 E , 439 ; an inanition ( κένωσις ) of the body, 9. 585 A . Thracians, procession of, in honour of Bendis, 1. 327 A ; characterised by spirit or passion, 4. 435 E . Thrasymachus, the Chalcedonian, a person in the dialogue, 1. 328 B ; described, ib. 336 B ; will be paid, ib. 337 D ; defines justice, ib. 338 C foll.; his rudeness, ib. 343 A ; his views of government, ibid. (cp. 9. 590 D ); his encomium on injustice, 1. 343 A ; his manner of speech, ib. 345 B ; his paradox about justice and injustice, ib. 348 B foll.; he blushes, ib. 350 D ; is pacified, and retires from the argument, ib. 354 (cp. 6. 498 C ); would have Socrates discuss the subject of women and children, 5. 450 . Timocracy , 8. 545 foll.; origin of, ib. 547 : —the timocratical man, described, 8. 549 ; his origin, ibid. Tinker, the prosperous, 6. 495 , 496 . Tops, 4. 436 . Torch race, an equestrian, 1. 328 A . Touch, 7. 523 E . Traders, necessary in the state, 2. 371 . Traditions of ancient times, their truth not certainly known to us, 2. 382 C (cp. 3. 414 C , and Tim. 40 D; Crit. 107; Pol. 271 A; Laws 4. 713 E; 6. 782 D). Tragedy and comedy in the state, 3. 394 [ cp. Laws 7. 817]. Tragic poets, the, eulogizers of tyranny, 8. 568 A ; imitators, 10. 597 , 598 . Training, dangers of, 3. 404 A ; severity of, 6. 504 A (cp. 7. 535 B ). Transfer of children from one class to another, 3. 415 ; 4. 423 D . Transmigration of souls, 10. 617 . See Soul . Trochaic rhythms, 3. 400 B . Troy , 3. 393 E ; Helen never at, 9. 586 C : —Trojan War, 2. 380 A : treatment of the wounded in, 3. 405 E , 408 A ; the army numbered by Palamedes, 7. 522 D . Truth, is not lost by men of their own will, 3. 413 A ; the aim of the philosopher, 6. 484 , 485 , 486 E , 490 , 500 C , 501 D ; 7. 521 , 537 D ; 9. 581 , 582 C (cp. supra 5. 475 E ; 7. 520 , 525 ; and Phaedo 82; Phaedr. 249; Theaet. 173 E; Soph. 249 D, 254 A); akin to wisdom, 6. 485 D ; to proportion, ib. 486 E ; no partial measure of, sufficient, ib. 504 ; love of, essential in this world and the next, 10. 618 ; —truth and essence, 9. 585 D . Tyranny, 1. 338 D ; = injustice on the grand scale, ib. 344 [ cp. Gorg. 469]; the wretchedest form of government, 8. 544 C ; 9. 576 [ cp. Pol. 302 E]; origin of, 8. 562 , 564 : —the tyrannical man, 9. 571 foll.; life of, ib. 573 ; his treatment of his parents, ib. 574 ; most miserable, ib. 576 , 578 ; has the soul of a slave, ib. 577 . Tyrant , the, origin of, 8. 565 ; happiness of, ib. 566 foll.; 9. 576 foll. [ cp. Laws 2. 661 B]; his rise to power, 8. 566 ; his taxes, ib. 567 A , 568 E ; his army, ib. 567 A , 569 ; his purgation of the city, ib. 567 B ; misery of, 9. 579 ; has no real pleasure, ib. 587 ; how far distant from pleasure, ibid. : —Tyrants and poets, 8. 568 ; have no friends, ibid. ; 9. 576 [ cp. Gorg. 510 C ]; punishment of, in the world below, 10. 615 [ cp. Gorg. 525]. U. Understanding, a faculty of the soul, 6. 511 D ; = science, 7. 533 E . Union impossible among the bad, 1. 352 A [ cp. Lysis 214]. Unity of the state, 4. 422 , 423 ; 5. 462 , 463 [ cp. Laws 5. 739]; —absolute unity, 7. 524 E , 525 E ; unity and plurality, ibid. Unjust man, the, happy (Thrasymachus), 1. 343 , 344 [ cp. Gorg. 470 foll.]; his unhappiness finally proved, 9. 580 ; 10. 613 : —injustice = private profit, 1. 344 ( see Injustice ). Uranus, immoral stories about, 2. 377 E . User, the, a better judge than the maker, 10. 601 C [ cp. Crat. 390]. Usury, sometimes not protected by law, 8. 556 A [ cp. Laws 5. 742 C]. V. Valetudinarianism, 3. 406 ; 4. 426 A . Valour, prizes of, 5. 468 . Vice, the disease of the soul, 4. 444 ; 10. 609 foll. [ cp. Soph. 228; Pol. 296 D; Laws 10. 906 C]; is many, 4. 445 ; the proper object of ridicule, 5. 452 E ; —fine names for the vices, 8. 560 E . Cp. Injustice . Virtue and justice, 1. 350 [ cp. Meno 73 E, 79]; thought by mankind to be toilsome, 2. 364 A [ cp. Laws 807 D]; virtue and harmony, 3. 401 A ( cp. 7. 522 A ); virtue and pleasure, 3. 402 E (cp. Pleasure ); not promoted by excessive care of the body, ib. 407 ( cp. 9. 591 D ); makes men wise, 3. 409 E ; divided into parts, 4. 428 foll., 433 ; in the individual and the state, ib. 435 foll., 441 (cp. Justice ); the health of the soul, ib. 444 (cp. 10. 609 foll., and Soph. 228; Pol. 296 D); is one, ib. 445 ; may be a matter of habit, 7. 518 E ; 10. 619 D ; impeded by wealth, 8. 550 E [ cp. Laws 5. 728 A, 742; 8. 831, 836 A]; —virtues of the philosopher, 6. 485 foll., 490 D , 491 B , 494 B (cp. Philosopher ); place of the several virtues in the state, 4. 427 foll. Visible world, divisions of, 6. 510 foll.; 7. 517 ; compared to the intellectual, 6. 508 , 509 ; 7. 532 A . Vision , 5. 477 ; 6. 508 ; 7. 517 . See Sight . W. War, causes of, 2. 373 ; 4. 422 foll.; 8. 547 A ; an art, 2. 374 A (cp. 4. 422 , and Laws 11. 921 E); men, women, and children to go to, 5. 452 foll., 467 , 471 E ; 7. 537 A ; regulations concerning, 5. 467 –471; a matter of chance, ib. 467 E [ cp. Laws 1. 638 A]; distinction between internal and external, ib. 470 A [ cp. Laws 1. 628, 629]; the guilt of, always confined to a few persons, ib. 471 B ; love of, especially characteristic of timocracy, 8. 547 E ; cannot be easily waged by an oligarchy, ib. 551 E ; the rich and the poor in war, ib. 556 C ; a favourite resource of the tyrant, ib. 567 A . Warrior , the brave, rewards of, 5. 468 ; his burial, ib. E ; the warrior must know how to count, 7. 522 E , 525 ; must be a geometrician, ib. 526 . Waves, the three, 5. 457 C , 472 A , 473 C . Weak, the, by nature subject to the strong, 1. 338 [ cp. Gorg. 489; Laws 3. 690 B]; not capable of much, either for good or evil, 6. 491 E , 495 B . Wealth , the advantage of, in old age, 1. 329 , 330 ; the greatest blessing of, ib. 330 , 331 ; the destruction of the arts, 4. 421 ; influence of, on the state, ib. 422 A [ cp. Laws 4. 705; 5. 729 A]; the ‘sinews of war,’ ibid. ; all-powerful in oligarchies and timocracies, 8. 548 A , 551 B , 553 , 562 A ; an impediment to virtue, ib. 550 E [ cp. Laws 5. 728 A; 742 E; 8. 831, 836 A]; should only be acquired to a moderate amount, 9. 591 E [ cp. Laws 7. 801 B]: —the blind god of wealth (Pluto), 8. 554 B : —Wealthy, the, everywhere hostile to the poor, 4. 423 A ; 8. 551 E [ cp. Laws 5. 736 A]; flattered by them, 5. 465 C ; the wealthy and the wise, 6. 489 B ; plundered by the multitude in democracies, 8. 564 , 565 . Weaving, the art of, 3. 401 A ; 5. 455 D . Weep, the guardians not to, 3. 387 C (cp. 10. 603 E ). Weighing, art of, corrects the illusions of sight, 10. 602 D . Whole, the, in regard to the happiness of the state, 4. 420 D ; 5. 466 A ; 7. 519 E ; in love, 5. 474 C , 475 B ; 6. 485 B . Whorl, the great, 10. 616 . Wicked, the, punishment of, in the world below, 2. 363 ; 10. 614 ; thought by men to be happy, 1. 354 ; 2. 364 A ; 3. 392 B (cp. 8. 545 A , and Gorg. 470 foll.; Laws 2. 66 1; 10. 899 E, 905 A). Wine, lovers of, 5. 475 A . Wisdom ( σοφία, φρόνησις ) and injustice, 1. 349 , 350 ; in the state, 4. 428 ; akin to truth, 6. 485 D ; the power of, 7. 518 , 519 ; the only virtue which is innate in us, ib. 518 E . Wise man, the, = the good, 1. 350 [ cp. 1 Alcib. 124, 125]; definition of, 4. 442 C ; alone has true pleasure, 9. 583 B ; life of, ib. 591 ; —‘the wise to go to the doors of the rich,’ 6. 489 B ; —wise men said to be the friends of the tyrant, 8. 568 . Wives to be common in the state, 5. 457 foll.; 8. 543 . Wolves, men changed into, 8. 565 D ; ‘wolf and flock’ (proverb), 3. 415 D . Women , employments of, 5. 455 ; differences of taste in, ib. 456 ; fond of complaining, 8. 549 D ; supposed to differ in nature from men, 5. 453 ; inferior to men, ib. 455 [ cp. Tim. 42; Laws 6. 781]; ought to be trained like men, ib. 451 , 466 [ cp. Laws 7. 805; 8. 829 E]; in the gymnasia, ib. 452 , 457 [ cp. Laws 7. 813, 814; 8. 833]; in war, ib. 453 foll., 466 E , 471 E [ cp. Laws 6. 785; 7. 806, 814 A]; to be guardians, ib. 456 , 458 , 468 ; 7. 540 C ; (and children) to be common, 5. 450 E , 457 foll., 462 , 464 ; 8. 543 [ cp. Laws 5. 739]. See supra s. v. State , p. 374. World, the, cannot be a philosopher, 6. 494 A . World below , the, seems very near to the aged, 1. 330 E ; not to be reviled, 3. 386 foll. [ cp. Crat. 403; Laws 5. 727 E; 8. 828 D]; pleasure of discourse in, 6. 498 D [ cp. Apol. 41]; punishment of the wicked in, 2. 363 ; 10. 614 foll.; sex in, 10. 618 B ; —[heroes] who have ascended from the world below to the gods, 7. 521 C . X. Xerxes, perhaps author of the maxim that justice = paying one’s debts, 1. 336 A . Y. Young, the, how affected by the common praises of injustice, 2. 365 ; cannot understand allegory, ib. 378 E ; must be subject in the state, 3. 412 B [ cp. Laws 3. 690 A; 4. 714 E]; must submit to their elders, 5. 465 A [ cp. Laws 4. 721 D; 9. 879 C; 11. 917 A]. Cp. Children , Education . Youth, the corruption of, not to be attributed to the Sophists, but to public opinion, 6. 492 A ; —youthful enthusiasm for metaphysics, 7. 539 B [ cp. Phil. 15 E]; —youthful scepticism, not of long continuance, ib. D [ cp. Soph. 234 E; Laws 10. 888 B]. Z. Zeus, his treatment of his father, 2. 377 E ; throws Hephaestus from heaven, ib. 378 D ; —Achilles descended from, 3. 391 C ; —did not cause the violation of the treaty in the Trojan War, or the strife of the gods, 2. 379 E ; or send the lying dream to Agamemnon, ib. 383 A ; or lust for Herè, 3. 390 B ; ought not to have been described by Homer as lamenting for Achilles and Sarpedon, ib. 388 C ; —Lycaean Zeus, 8. 565 D ; —Olympian Zeus, 9. 583 B . THE END. Oxford PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS BY HORACE HART PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 55201 ***

(54) If a man may attain thereunto, to be unto God as his hand is to a man, let him be therewith content, and not seek farther. This is my faithful counsel, and here I take my stand. That is to say, let him strive and wrestle with all his might to obey God and His commandments so thoroughly at all times and in all things, that in him there be nothing, spiritual or natural, which opposeth God; and that his whole soul and body with all their members may stand ready and willing for that to which God hath created them; as ready and willing as his hand is to a man, which is so wholly in his power, that in the twinkling of an eye, he moveth and turneth it whither he will. And when we find it otherwise with us, we must give our whole diligence to amend our state; and this from love and not from fear, and in all things whatsoever, seek and intend the glory and praise of God alone. We must not seek our own, either in things spiritual or in things natural. It must needs be thus, if it is to stand well with us. And every creature oweth this of right and truth unto God, and especially man, to whom, by the ordinance of God, all creatures are made subject, and are servants, that he may be subject to and serve God only. Further, when a man hath come so far, and climbed so high, that he thinketh and weeneth he standeth sure, let him beware lest the Devil strew ashes and his own bad seed on his heart, and nature seek and take her own comfort, rest, peace, and delight in the prosperity of his soul, and he fall into a foolish, lawless freedom and licentiousness, which is altogether alien to, and at war with, a true life in God.

(5) Certain men say that we ought to be without will, wisdom, love, desire, knowledge, and the like. Hereby is not to be understood that there is to be no knowledge in man, and that God is not to be loved by him, nor desired and longed for, nor praised and honoured; for that were a great loss, and man were like the beasts and as the brutes that have no reason. But it meaneth that man’s knowledge should be so clear and perfect that he should acknowledge of a truth that in himself he neither hath nor can do any good thing, and that none of his knowledge, wisdom and art, his will, love and good works do come from himself, nor are of man, nor of any creature, but that all these are of the eternal God, from whom they all proceed. As Christ Himself saith, “Without Me, ye can do nothing.”8 St. Paul saith also, “What hast thou that thou hast not received?”9 As much as to say—nothing. “Now if thou didst receive it, why dost thou glory as if thou hadst not received it?” Again he saith, “Not that we are sufficient of ourselves to think anything as of ourselves, but our sufficiency is of God.”10 Now when a man duly perceiveth these things in himself, he and the creature fall behind, and he doth not call anything his own, and the less he taketh this knowledge unto himself, the more perfect doth it become.

(3) Now if God took to Himself all men that are in the world, or ever were, and were made man in them, and they were made divine in Him, and this work were not fulfilled in me, my fall and my wandering would never be amended except it were fulfilled in me also. And in this bringing back and healing, I can, or may, or shall do nothing of myself, but just simply yield to God, so that He alone may do all things in me and work, and I may suffer Him and all His work and His divine will. And because I will not do so, but I count myself to be my own, and say “I,” “Mine,” “Me” and the like, God is hindered, so that He cannot do His work in me alone and without hindrance; for this cause my fall and my going astray remain unhealed. Behold! this all cometh of my claiming somewhat for my own.

(2) Not only those who have come forth from the Logos, about whom alone we said that they would accomplish the good work, but also those whom these brought forth according to the good dispositions will share in the repose according to the abundance of the grace. Also those who have been brought forth from the desire of lust for power, having the seed in them which is the lust for power, will receive the reward for (their) good deeds, namely those who acted and those who have the predisposition toward the good, if they intentionally desire and wish to abandon the vain, temporal ambition, and they keep the commandment of the Lord of glory, instead of the momentary honor, and inherit the eternal kingdom.

(612) we have not introduced the rewards and glories of justice, which, as you were saying, are to be found in Homer and Hesiod; but justice in her own nature has been shown to be best for the soul in her own nature. Let a man do what is just, whether he have the ring of Gyges or not, and even if in addition to the ring of Gyges he put on the helmet of Hades. Very true. And now, Glaucon, there will be no harm in further enumerating how many and how great are the rewards which justice and the other virtues procure to the soul from gods and men, both in life and after death. Certainly not, he said. Will you repay me, then, what you borrowed in the argument? What did I borrow? The assumption that the just man should appear unjust and the unjust just: for you were of opinion that even if the true state of the case could not possibly escape the eyes of gods and men, still this admission ought to be made for the sake of the argument, in order that pure justice might be weighed against pure injustice. Do you remember? I should be much to blame if I had forgotten. Then, as the cause is decided, I demand on behalf of justice that the estimation in which she is held by gods and men and which we acknowledge to be her due should now be restored to her by us 6 ; since she has been shown to confer reality, and not to deceive those who truly possess her, let what has been taken from her be given back, that so she may win that palm of appearance which is hers also, and which she gives to her own.

(27) Now, according to what hath been said, ye must observe that when we say, as Christ also saith, that we ought to resign and forsake all things, this is not to be taken in the sense that a man is neither to do nor to purpose anything; for a man must always have something to do and to order so long as he liveth. But we are to understand by it that the union with God standeth not in any man’s powers, in his working or abstaining, perceiving or knowing, nor in that of all the creatures taken together. Now what is this union? It is that we should be of a truth purely, simply, and wholly at one with the One Eternal Will of God, or altogether without will, so that the created will should flow out into the Eternal Will, and be swallowed up and lost therein, so that the Eternal Will alone should do and leave undone in us. Now mark what may help or further us towards this end. Behold, neither exercises, nor words, nor works, nor any creature nor creature’s work can do this. In this wise therefore must we renounce and forsake all things, that we must not imagine or suppose that any words, works, or exercises, any skill or cunning or any created thing can help or serve us thereto. Therefore we must suffer these things to be what they are, and enter into the union with God. Yet outward things must be, and we must do and refrain so far as is necessary, especially we must sleep and wake, walk and stand still, speak and be silent and much more of the like. These must go on so long as we live.

(1) [Asclepius] Rightly and truly, O Thrice-greatest one, thou speakest. This is the prize for those who piously subordinate their lives to God and live to help the world.

[Trismegistus] [To those], however, who have lived in other fashion impiously,—[to them] both is return to Heaven denied, and there’s appointed them migration into other bodies unworthy of a holy soul and base; so that, as this discourse of ours will show, souls in their life on earth run risk of losing hope of future immortality.

(29) The glorification of this my knowledge I desire, and no other; for I know that when this my spirit in my new body, which I shall get at the day of my resurrection, out of this my now corrupted body, shall arise, that it will appear like the Deity, as also like the holy angels.

(2) Moreover, of perfect men there are two differences. For some of them are naturally perfect; but others are perfect according to life. And those indeed alone that are good, are naturally perfect. But these are such as possess virtue. For the virtue of the nature of every thing is a summit and perfection. Thus the virtue of the eye is the summit and perfection of the nature of the eye. But the virtue of man is the summit and perfection of the nature of man. Those also are perfect according to life, who are not only good, but happy. For felicity, indeed, is the perfection of human life. But human, life is a system of actions: and: felicity gives completion to the actions.

Virtue also and fortune give completion to actions; virtue, indeed, according to use; but good fortune according to prosperity. God therefore is neither good through learning virtue from any one, nor is he happy through being attended by good fortune. For he is good by nature, and happy by nature, and always was and will be, and will never cease to be, such; since he is incorruptible, and naturally good. But man is neither happy nor good by nature, but requires discipline and providential care. And in order to become good, indeed; he requires virtue; but in order to become happy, good fortune. On this account, human felicity summarily consists of these two things, viz. of praise, and the predication of beatitude.

Of praise indeed, from virtue; but of the predication of beatitude, from prosperity. It possesses virtue therefore, through a divine destiny, but prosperity through a mortal allotment. But mortal are suspended from divine concerns, and terrestrial from such as are celestial. Things subordinate, also, are suspended from such as are more excellent. And on this account, the good man who follows the Gods is happy; but he who follows mortal natures is miserable. For to him who possesses wisdom, prosperity is good and useful. It is good, indeed, through his knowledge of the use of it; but it is useful, through his co-operating with actions. It is beautiful, therefore, when prosperity is present with intellect, and when sailing as it were with a prosperous wind, actions are performed looking to virtue; just as a pilot looks to the motions of the stars. For thus, he who does this will not only follow God, but will also co-arrange human with divine good.

(2) But the right performance of actions which are effected in a divine manner, is entirely to be ascribed to some one of the more excellent natures. For since it is not possible to speak rightly about the Gods without the Gods, much less can any one perform works which are of an equal dignity with divinity, and obtain the foreknowledge of every thing without [the inspiring influence of] the Gods. For the human race is imbecile, and of small estimation, sees but a little, and possesses a connascent nothingness; and the only remedy of its inherent error, perturbation, and unstable mutation, is its participation, as much as possible, of a certain portion of divine light. But he who excludes this, does the same thing as those who attempt to produce soul from things inanimate, or to generate intellect from things unintelligent. For without the cooperation of a cause, he constitutes divine works from things which are not divine.

(5) So also is it with the will, and love and desire, and the like. For the less we call these things our own, the more perfect and noble and Godlike do they become, and the more we think them our own, the baser and less pure and perfect do they become. Behold on this sort must we cast all things from us, and strip ourselves of them; we must refrain from claiming anything for our own. When we do this, we shall have the best, fullest, clearest and noblest knowledge that a man can have, and also the noblest and purest love, will and desire; for then these will be all of God alone. It is much better that they should be God’s than the creature’s. Now that I ascribe anything good to myself, as if I were, or had done, or knew, or could perform any good thing, or that it were mine, this is all of sin and folly. For if the truth were rightly known by me, I should also know that I am not that good thing and that it is not mine, nor of me, and that I do not know it, and cannot do it, and the like.

(2) Again, however, assuming a more elevated exordium, I am desirous to exhibit the principles of the worship of the Gods, which Pythagoras and his followers established; viz. that all such particulars as they define with respect to doing or not doing a thing, have for the mark at which they aim, a consent with divinity. This also is with them the principle, [of piety] and their whole life is arranged with a view to follow God . The language, too, of their philosophy is this, that men act ridiculously in exploring good from any other source than the Gods; and that their conduct in this respect resembles that of a man, who in a country governed by a king should reverence one of the magistrates in the city, and neglect him who is the ruler of all of them.

For they were of opinion that such was the conduct of mankind. For since God is, and is the Lord of all things, it is universally acknowledged that good is to be requested of him. For all men impart good to those whom they love, and to those with whom they are delighted; but they give the contrary to good, to those to whom they are contrarily disposed. It is evident, therefore, that those things are to be done, in which God delights. It is, however, not easy for a man to know what these are, unless he obtains this knowledge from one who has heard God, or has heard God himself, or procures it through divine art. Hence also, the Pythagoreans were studious of divination.

For this alone is an interpretation of the benevolence of the Gods. And in short, he will conceive an employment of this kind to be worthy of regard, who believes that there are Gods; but he who thinks that either of these is folly, will also be of opinion that both are foolish. Many of the mandates, however, of the Pythagoreans were introduced from the mysteries; for they did not conceive them to be the productions of arrogance, but to originate from a certain divinity. And in a similar manner, all the Pythagoreans believe such things as are mythologically related of Aristeas the Proconesian, and Abaris the Hyperborean, and other particulars of a like nature. For they consider every thing of this kind to be credible; and of many [such] things they make trial themselves.

They also frequently recollect such-like particulars as appear to be fabulous, as not disbelieving in any thing which may be referred to divinity. A certain person therefore relates, that Eurytus said, that a shepherd feeding his sheep near the tomb of Philolaus, heard some one singing. But the person to whom this was related, did not at all disbelieve the narration, but asked what kind of harmony it was? Both of them, however, were Pythagoreans, and Eurytus was the disciple of Philolaus. It is likewise said, that a certain person told Pythagoras, that he appeared to himself once to converse with his father who was dead, and that he asked Pythagoras what this indicated? Pythagoras replied, that it indicated nothing; but that he had in reality conversed with his father.

As therefore, said he, nothing is signified by my now discoursing with you, so neither is any thing signified by your conversing with your father. Hence, in all particulars of this kind, they did not think that they were stupid, but those that disbelieved in them. For they did not conceive that some things are possible to the Gods, but others impossible, as those fancy who reason sophistically; but they believed that all things are possible to the Gods. And this very assertion is the beginning of the verses, which they ascribe to Linus, and which are as follow:

(1) In the first place, it is requisite to know this, that the good man is not immediately happy from necessity; but that this is the case with the man who is both happy and good. For the happy man obtains both praise and the predication of blessedness; but the good man far as he is good obtains praise alone. The praise also arises from virtue; but the predication of blessedness from good fortune. And the worthy man, indeed, becomes such from the goods which he possesses; but the happy man is sometimes deprived of his felicity. For the power of virtue is perfectly free, but that of felicity is subject to restraint. For long-continued diseases of the body, and deprivations of the senses, cause the florishing condition of felicity to waste away.

God, however, differs from a good man in this, that God indeed not only possesses virtue genuine and purified from every mortal passion, but his power also is unwearied and unrestrained, as being adapted to the most venerable and magnificent production of eternal works. Man indeed, by the mortal condition of his nature, not only enjoys this power and this virtue in a less degree; but sometimes through the want of symmetry in the goods which he possesses, or through powerful custom, or a depraved nature, or through many other causes, he is unable to possess in the extreme a good which is perfectly true.

(539) character will increase instead of diminishing the honour of the pursuit. Very true, he said. And did we not make special provision for this, when we said that the disciples of philosophy were to be orderly and steadfast, not, as now, any chance aspirant or intruder? Very true. Suppose, I said, the study of philosophy to take the place of gymnastics and to be continued diligently and earnestly and exclusively for twice the number of years which were passed in bodily exercise—will that be enough? Would you say six or four years? he asked. Say five years, I replied; at the end of the time they must be sent down again into the den and compelled to hold any military or other office which young men are qualified to hold: in this way they will get their experience of life, and there will be an opportunity of trying whether, when they are drawn all manner of ways by temptation, they will stand firm or flinch. And how long is this stage of their lives to last? Fifteen years, I answered; and when they have reached fifty years of age, then let those who still survive and have distinguished themselves in every action of their lives and in every branch of knowledge come at last to their consummation: the time has now arrived at which they must raise the eye of the soul to the universal light which lightens all things, and behold the absolute good; for that is the pattern according to which they are to order the State and the

(10) Now let us mark: Where men are enlightened with the true light, they perceive that all which they might desire or choose, is nothing to that which all creatures, as creatures, ever desired or chose or knew. Therefore they renounce all desire and choice, and commit and commend themselves and all things to the Eternal Goodness. Nevertheless, there remaineth in them a desire to go forward and get nearer to the Eternal Goodness; that is, to come to a clearer knowledge, and warmer love, and more comfortable assurance, and perfect obedience and subjection; so that every enlightened man could say: “I would fain be to the Eternal Goodness, what His own hand is to a man.” And he feareth always that he is not enough so, and longeth for the salvation of all men. And such men do not call this longing their own, nor take it unto themselves, for they know well that this desire is not of man, but of the Eternal Goodness; for whatsoever is good shall no one take unto himself as his own, seeing that it belongeth to the Eternal Goodness, only. Moreover, these men are in a state of freedom, because they have lost the fear of pain or hell, and the hope of reward or heaven, but are living in pure submission to the Eternal Goodness, in the perfect freedom of fervent love. This mind was in Christ in perfection, and is also in His followers, in some more, and in some less. But it is a sorrow and shame to think that the Eternal Goodness is ever most graciously guiding and drawing us, and we will not yield to it.

(5) We shall however adduce another example of it, viz. the salvation of legitimate opinion; for, preserving this, he performed that which appeared to him to be just, and which was dictated by right reason, not being diverted from his intention either by pleasure, or labor, or any other passion, or danger. His disciples also chose to die rather than transgress his mandates. And when they were exposed to all-various fortunes, they preserved invariably the same manners. When also they were involved in ten thousand calamities, they never deviated from his precepts. But it was a never-failing exhortation with them, always to give assistance to law, but to be hostile to illegality, and to be accustomed from their birth to a life of temperance and fortitude, in order to restrain and repel luxury.

They had also certain melodies which were devised by them, as remedies against the passions of the soul, and likewise against despondency and lamentation, which Pythagoras invented, as affording the greatest assistance in these maladies. And again, they employed other melodies against rage and anger, through which they gave intension and remission to these passions, till they reduced them to moderation, and rendered them commensurate with fortitude. That, however, which afforded them the greatest support in generous endurance, was the persuasion that no human casualties ought to be unexpected by men who are in the possession of intellect, but that all things ought to be expected by them, over which they have no absolute power.

(3) On the same manner shalt thou do with this little word “God.” Fill thy spirit with the ghostly bemeaning of it without any special beholding to any of His works—whether they be good, better, or best of all—bodily or ghostly, or to any virtue that may be wrought in man’s soul by any grace; not looking after whether it be meekness or charity, patience or abstinence, hope, faith, or soberness, chastity or wilful poverty. What recks this in contemplatives? For all virtues they find and feel in God; for in Him is all thing, both by cause and by being. For they think that an they had God they had all good, and therefore they covet nothing with special beholding, but only good God. Do thou on the same manner as far forth as thou mayest by grace: and mean God all, and all God, so that nought work in thy wit and in thy will, but only God.

(40) If the Soul of a Man was not [sprung] out of God the Father out of his first Principle, but out of another Matter, he could not have bestowed that highest Earnest or Pledge of his own Heart and Light upon him, as himself witnesses, saying, / am the Light of the World, and the Life of Man; but he could very well have redeemed or helped him some other Way.